Abstract: Chapter 1: Schooling: Wrestling with History and TraditionChapter 2: Traditional Learning Theories: Transmission, Training, and IQChapter 3: Contemporary Learning Theories: Problem Solving, Understanding, and ParticipationChapter 4: Curriculum: Philosophy, History, and Politics: What Should Students Learn?Chapter 5: Curriculum Content: The Subject MattersChapter 6: Instruction and Assessment: Classrooms as Learning CommunitiesChapter 7: Classroom Management: Caring and Democratic CommunitiesChapter 8: Grouping and Categorical Programs: Can Schools Teach All Students Well?Chapter 9: The School Culture: Where Good Teaching Makes SenseChapter 10: Connections with Families and CommunitiesChapter 11: Teaching to Change the World: A Profession and a Hopeful Struggle

Abstract: By 1993, 40 states had instituted alternative certification (AC) programs for degree holders wishing to teach (Sindelar & Marks, 1993). Although these alternative certification programs have occasioned controversy over their value, researchers have conducted very few substantive investigations on their effectiveness. The few extant studies have somewhat contradictory results. One problem with investigations and even discussion of AC and traditional certification (TC) is the variety of the former. Cornett (1990) provides useful descriptions of the broadly differing ends of the spectrum of AC programs: [Some AC programs] simply give teachers without the proper credentials (requirements such as education hours completed) an interim status and allow them to be employed while they work to earn the college credits that are equivalent to standard requirements for teacher education programs. On the other hand, several states have developed alternative certification programs--ones that permit Arts and Sciences graduates to go through intensified but shorter programs (not requiring the typical accumulation of education hours), or meet requirements by demonstrating competencies, or by gaining the necessary expertise through field-based experiences while holding a teaching position (p. 5 7, emphasis in original). In this article, we compare TC program graduates with individuals completing a carefully constructed AC program. The AC program required condensed coursework to meet provisional certification standards, an induction mentoring program, and ongoing coursework to meet minimal state certification guidelines. It did not meet the full requirements for a degree program in middle-level education. Darling-Hammond (1992), reviewing the literature on alternative teacher certification programs, reports: Studies of teachers admitted through quick-entry alternate routes frequently note that the candidates have difficulty with curriculum development, pedagogical content knowledge, attending to students' differing learning styles and levels, classroom management and student motivation (Feiman-Nemser & Parker, 1990; Grossman, 1989; Lenk, 1989; Mitchell, 1987). Novice teachers without full training show more ignorance about student needs and differences and about teaching basics than trained beginners (Rottenberg & Berliner, 1990) (Darling, Hammond, 1992, p. 131). Some researchers question the content preparation of AC teachers, a supposed strength of AC programs. McDiarmid and Wilson (1991) compared the mathematical knowledge of teachers from two different AC programs with that of TC teachers and noted that teachers with AC preparation lacked depth of content knowledge. They did not improve appreciably through teaching the content: Our analyses should raise questions about assumptions that underlie policy initiatives such as alternate routes: Specifically, should a major in mathematics--or in any discipline--be accepted as a proxy for the kinds of understandings of the subject essential to helping diverse learners understand critical ideas and concepts (McDiarmid & Wilson, 1991, p. 102)? Several studies support the equivalence and occasional advantages of AC programs when compared with TC programs. Adelman (1986) found that AC programs attract individuals with greater classroom effectiveness than that possessed by TC teachers. In an evaluation of Texas programs, Wale and Irons (1990) found that administrators held favorable opinions of AC teachers. Hawk and Schmidt (1989) found no difference between AC and TC teachers, either in observed classroom performance or National Teacher Examination scores. Other researchers (Barnes, Salmon, & Wale, 1989; Dewalt & Ball, 1987; Etheridge, Butler, Etheridge, & James, 1988; Guyton, Fox, & Sisk, 1991; Hutton, 1987; Mishima, 1987; Soares, 1989, 1990) report similar findings. Comparisons based on achievement test performance suggest that AC programs do not necessarily lead to lower student outcomes (Barnes, et al. …

Abstract: An Integrated Learning System (ILS) is an advanced computer-based instructional system, generally consisting of a set of computerized courseware covering several grade levels and content areas, and complex classroom management and reporting features. Although ILSs have become increasingly popular in schools over the past five to ten years, they introduce several potential factors that could have negative effects on students' academic and social growth. These factors include: (a) de-emphasis of affective outcomes and increased student isolation, (b) lack of teacher involvement in curriculum planning and delivery, and (c) disparate effects on student achievement based on students' academic level. One possible strategy for addressing these concerns is integrating cooperative learning with ILS instruction. This paper will examine the research dealing with integrating cooperative learning strategies and computer-based instruction and provide guidelines and strategies for designing ILS instruction that enhances opportunities for cooperative learning.

Abstract: 1. Introduction: A Model for Teaching. I. LEARNER-CENTERED PLANNING. 2. The Goals of Instruction. 3. Formulating Goals and Objectives. 4. Planning for Learning. 5. The Affective, Psychomotor, and Cognitive Domains. II. LEARNER-CENTERED INSTRUCTION. 6. Questioning Strategies. 7. Teaching Strategies. 8. Accommodating Learner Differences: Instructional Strategies. 9. Classroom Management: Prevention. 10. Classroom Management: Intervention. III. LEARNER-CENTERED ASSESSMENTS. 11. Assessing Student Learning. References. Index.

Abstract: I. EARLY CHILDHOOD CURRICULUM. 1. Role of Curriculum in Early Childhood Programs. 2. Creative Play Curriculum Model. 3. Children in Contemporary Society. II. INVISIBLE CURRICULUM. 4. Role of the Teacher. 5. Partnerships with Parents. 6. Classroom Management and Guidance. 7. Classroom Design and Organization. 8. Outdoor Play Environment. III. VISIBLE CURRICULUM. 9. Child Observation and Assessment. 10. Activity Planning. 11. Curriculum for Developing Personal Awareness. 12. Curriculum for Developing Emotional Well-Being. 13. Curriculum for Developing Socialization Skills. 14. Curriculum for Developing Communication. 15. Curriculum for Developing Cognition. 16. Curriculum for Developing Perceptual Motor Skills. IV. PROFESSIONAL ISSUES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CURRICULA AND PROGRAMS. 17. Issues in Implementing Early Childhood Curriculum. Appendix A: NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct. Appendix B: Developmental Checklist. Appendix C: Guidelines for Child Observations. Appendix D: Creativity Indicators. Activity Index. Index.

Abstract: Portfolios, "one more thing to do" for overworked student teachers, may not be considered important by students who are already stressed by their heavy load of teaching and their focus on obtaining a teaching job. Are they worth the time and effort required? Training a large group of student teachers in their final semester of student teaching to develop portfolios was an eye-opening experience. Students in a cohort program, Block A, at California State University, Fresno are required to develop portfolios in their first semester of initial student teaching. Portfolios for student teaching assessment have been used in the Block A Program for the past seven years. They are an excellent means for student teachers to document and reflect on their learning and growth as teachers. The portfolio is organized into five sections that represent the competencies they are required to achieve to complete their creden tial: plannning and organizing, classroom teaching, Bernice A. Stone is a classroom management, interpersonal relations, and professor in the professional development. Students are directed to Curriculum, Teaching collect materials for their portfolio as they progress and Educational through student teaching. Items collected document Technology Department and demonstrate their experiences, their achieve of the School of ments, andtheirprogressthroughtheirstudentteach Education at California ing semesters. They include lesson plans, units, State University, Fresno. projects, student work, evaluations by master teach 105

Abstract: Five teams of researchers observed literacy instruction in 28 first-grade classrooms in diverse settings across five states. At each site, they observed teachers who had been identified by administrators as outstanding or typical, and they noted how each teacher taught and the literacy achievements of the students in each class. Based on student academic engagement and classroom literacy performances, the most effective and least effective teachers in each locale were selected and their instruction further analyzed. The classrooms of the most effective teachers were characterized by high academic engagement, excellent classroom management, positive reinforcement and cooperation, explicit teaching of skills, an emphasis on literature, much reading and writing, matching of task demands to student competence, encouragement of student self-regulation, and strong cross-curricular connections. The lowest achieving students in these classrooms outperformed their peers in more typical classrooms on several measures. (Contains 54 references and 3 tables of data; appendixes contain a description of research personnel responsibilities, and a list of characteristics that differentiate the most-effective-for-locale classrooms.) (Author/RS) ******************************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. ******************************************************************************** U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Office of Educational Research and Improvement EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) 4F(This document has been reproduced as received from the person or organization originating it. 0 Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality. o Points of view or opinions stated in this document do not necessarily represent official OERI position or policy. THE NATURE OF EFFECTIVE FIRST-GRADE LITERACY INSTRUCTION MICHAEL PRESSLEY Rum WHARTON-MCDONALD RICHARD ALLINGTON CATHY COLLINS BLOCK LESLEY MORROW CELA RESEARCH REPORT NUMBER 11007 ENGISH :EARNING ACHIH VEM:N THE UNIVERSITY AT ALBANY o THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN-MADISON THE UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA 0 THE UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON 0 BEST COPY AVAIIILABILE THE NATURE OF EFFECTIVE FIRST-GRADE LITERACY INSTRUCTION MICHAEL PRESSLEY UNIVERSITY OF NOTRE DAME RICHARD ALLINGTON UNIVERSITY AT ALBANY STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK LESLEY MORROW RUTGERS UNIVERSITY KIM BAKER THE SAGE COLLEGES EILEEN NELSON TEXAS CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY RUTH WHARTON-MCDONALD UNIVERSITY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE CATHY COLLINS BLOCK TEXAS CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY DIANE TRACEY KEAN UNIVERSITY GREGORY BROOKS JOHN CRONIN UNIVERSITY AT ALBANY STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK DEBORAH WOO RUTGERS UNIVERSITY The National Research Center on English Learning & Achievement The University at Albany State University of New York 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, NY 12222 Report Series 11007 http://cela.albany.edu/ 1 stgradelit/index.html 1998

Abstract: Teachers frequently are asked to address misbehavior in the classroom. To minimize the negative effects of reactive, punishment-based classroom management strategies, proactive instructional approaches are recommended. The Cool Tool is a social skills strategy designed to teach and encourage prosocial behaviors in the classroom and larger school environment. This case study utilized the Cool Tool with 26 middle school students across two classroom settings to teach “Respect to Adults” and “Respect to Peers.” A decrease in inappropriate behaviors was observed across both settings when the Cool Tool was initiated. Decreased rates of inappropriate behavior maintained for two months. Implications, limitations, and recommendations are discussed.

Abstract: Piecing Together the Personality Puzzle Nothing Succeeds Like Success Establishing High Expectations Practicing Skillful Communication From Chaos to Organization Recognizing and Promoting Excellence Motivating High Student Achievement Developing Powerful Classroom Management Skills Becoming a Legend

Abstract: Each chapter begins with "Introduction" and concludes with "Summary," "Suggested Applications," and "Suggested Readings." 1.Understanding Management and Discipline in the Classroom. What Are the Causes of Discipline Problems? Defining Management and Discipline. Discipline as a Central Educational Concept. The Goal of Discipline. The Management and Discipline Domain. I.EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT. 2.Establishing Teacher Authority and Leadership. What Is Leadership? Teacher Consistency. Sharing Power and Responsibility. Establishing Authority and Leadership. Sharing Power through Establishment of Classroom Rules. 3.Motivation and Discipline. Motivational Variables. Valuing Learning Goals. Accommodating Needs and Interests in the Classroom. Altering Perceptions of Required Effort. Increasing the Probability of Success. 4.Arranging the Physical Environment. Goals to Be Considered When Planning the Environment. Dimensions of the Physical Environment. The Classroom Ambiance. Classroom Density. 5.Preventing Problems through Time Management. Understanding Different Types of Time. Pacing Classroom Activities. Providing Clear Directions. Managing Transitions. Monitoring Student Work. 6.Preventing Problems through Lesson Management. The Dimensions of Lesson Management. II.RESPONDING TO PROBLEMS. 7.Responding to Inappropriate Behavior. The Purpose of Discipline. Some Principles to Consider Choosing a Response. Choosing a Response to Misbehavior. 8.Responding to Minor Problems and Supporting Self-Control. Modeling Self-Control. Low Profile Responses. Gaining Cooperation through Communication. 9.Direct Teacher Intervention. Teacher Assertiveness. Understanding the Link between Behavior and Consequence. Implementing Reasonable Consequences. Identifying Alternative Consequences. Mistaken Goals. 10.Responding to Persistent Misbehavior. Teacher Responses. Behavior Modification. 11.Responding to Serious Behavior Problems. Attendance Problems. Cheating. Stealing. Vandalism. Violence against Other Students. Violence against Teachers. Drug and Alcohol Abuse. 12.Teaching Conflict Resolution. Understanding Conflict. Responses to Conflict. Solving Conflicts Using Negotiation, Mediation, and Arbitration.

Abstract: The use of computer conferencing environments with student teachers and their supervisors was implemented during teaching practice and evaluated for four teacher education programs. Computer conferencing can be contrasted with the more common supervision methods, such as face-to-face conferences between the student teacher and the cooperating teacher, or between a group of student teachers and their supervisor at the teacher education institute. In our evaluation, we focused on participants' opinions of computer conferencing and their participation, activities and educational outcomes. During their field experiences, student teachers used computer conferencing primarily to exchange emotional support when they recognised similar experiences among their peers. It was less used for reflecting on their teaching and exchanging pedagogical content knowledge, including instructional methods and designs, classroom management strategies, general and instructional theories, and aspects of the teaching profession. This finding led to the conclusion that more attention should be paid to the structure of student teachers' learning environment, because more coaching and instruction of student teachers in their systematic and reflective use of computer conferencing leads to more varied and extensive communication

Abstract: The Irvine Paraprofessional Program (IPP) looks promising for serving elementary-school children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in the general education classroom. This article describes the components of the IPP, preliminary research studies that support its efficacy, and the benefits of the model. The IPP is a 12-week intensive intervention that includes (a) direct intervention to children with ADHD by specially trained paraprofessionals, (b) teacher consultation by the school psychologist on the use of effective classroom management strategies, (c) school-based reinforcement, and (d) social skills training. Preliminary studies suggest that paraprofessionals can effect positive changes in children with ADHD that can be maintained by the teacher once the paraprofessional is removed from the classroom. The purpose of this article is to provide a description of the IPP as an effective model for serving children with ADHD in the general education classroom.

Abstract: This study represents a continuation of research efforts to further refine the Attitudes & Beliefs on Classroom Control (ABCC) Inventory. Formerly titled the Inventory of Classroom Management Style, the ABCC is an instrument designed to measure teachers' perceptions of their classroom management beliefs and practices. It is based on a continuum originally suggested by C. Wolfgang and C. Glickman (1980, 1986). Objectives were to: (1) investigate the impact of classroom management training on classroom management style; (2) study the relationship between class size and classroom management style; (3) investigate differences between the perceived classroom management style of teachers who had and had not enrolled in a graduate course within the preceding 6 months; and (4) further substantiate the construct validity of the ABCC. Data were collected from 281 certified teachers, who were primarily urban, and female. Most of the teachers were Caucasian (69.9%) and they had an overall average of 14.35 years of teaching experience. Results show significant differences on the Instructional Management subscale of the ABCC regarding classroom management training as well as significant positive correlations between average class enrollment and teachers' scores on the People Management and Behavior Management subscales of the ABCC. A one-way analysis of variance did not yield significant differences between the teachers who had enrolled in graduate courses in the last 6 months and those who did not. Results seem to be in keeping with the construct. (Contains 3 tables and 26 references.) (SLD) ******************************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. ********************************************************************************

Abstract: Project 2061, Benchmarks, and National Standards for Science Education are forwarding a vision for science teacher educators in which a constructivist teaching perspective is implicit. Included in these documents is an epistemological treatment of scientific knowledge that contrasts starkly with what researchers have found prolific in most science classrooms. It is becoming a more mainstream perspective among science educators that classrooms are places in which students and teachers jointly construct meaning from discursive events. Beliefs about the nature of science and the purpose of school are not constructed in isolation from one another. Rather, the philosophical treatment of science in classrooms, especially physics, has revealed that the dominant epistemology is a strong predictor of the types of learning strategies deployed by students. Given that the dominant epistemological treatment of high school physics is of a positivist origin and the purpose of normal classroom discourse is to make classrooms operate smoothly, we ask if the concerns of management are free from the influences of students' beliefs of what science is and what school is for? Practical teacher knowledge often quantizes the complexities of instruction, management, concept development, and philosophical frameworks as separate and discrete components of normal classroom science. Our purpose is to raise the critical issue of understanding the nature of certain classroom management problems as we examine the interaction of two contrasting epistemological treatments of science in a high school physics class and the subsequent classroom management techniques influenced by these beliefs. A physics teacher and his students were surveyed, interviewed, and observed during normal instruction and a range of epistemological commitments were identified. We argue that differences in epistemological stances can invoke antagonistic interactions that may not be well understood from a purely management or pedagogical approach to teacher knowledge and, inasmuch, classroom management choices made independent of epistemological considerations miss the mark. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Sci Ed82:619–648, 1998.

Abstract: As Is The Teacher, So Is The School Horace Mann long ago made the following important point: as is the teacher so is the school. By implication then, teacher characteristics, attitudes, concepts of self, and intellectual and interpersonal dispositions in large measure determine both the formal and the informal curriculum of the classroom. The formal curriculum is represented by materials, lesson plans, and objectives, but the informal curriculum is the atmosphere, or climate in the classroom, as indicated by important teacher characteristics (Sprinthall, Reiman, Thies-Sprinthall, 1996). Characteristics of effective teachers which evolve from their dispositions are the impetus for successful teaching and learning. Those characteristics focus on attributes such as being an encourager, possessing a caring attitude, being open-minded, and a listener. As teacher educators we should be concerned not only with teaching methodology, classroom management/discipline, lesson design and assessment, but the teacher as a person. There needs to be concern for the person, not only people in the abstract, not only theories about traits, learning styles and cultural background; teachers meet persons in their classrooms. Teachers prepared in teacher education programs encounter uniquely formed individuals, each different from any other person in the world, a person with his or her own particular story. The person who teaches is not a mere cog in a machine or someone who blindly follows the formulas of textbook writers, exam makers, or administrators (Huebner, 1996). Teachers are professional educators who expect to transform young people, to inspire them to think, to feel, and to take social action as citizens in a democratic society (Colton & Sparks-Langer, 1993). These professionals declare their teaching purpose with broad goals that target information processing and problem solving rather than narrow objectives that specify the degree to which discrete skills and bits of information must be mastered. Their teaching demonstrates a conviction that children should become more virtuous people for having the opportunity to learn (Fenstermacher, 1990). As they take classroom action, these professionals regularly display concern for young people's present and future welfare. In order for teachers to be more than "mere" cogs they must possess the dispositions to teach the person. When veteran or preservice teachers are asked to list desired dispositions for today's classroom teachers, responses often include these traits: caring individual, listener, lifelong learner, and compassionate. Given the dynamics of today's public school classrooms and the call for improved teacher preparation, how can teacher educators help preservice teachers realize their beliefs about teaching and desired dispositions and internalize them as their own? The purpose for this manuscript is to generate thought for teacher educators and encourage them to reflect on the practice of preparing teachers. Within this paper the reader will find definitions for dispositions and descriptions of how teacher education programs may or may not help preservice teachers recognize desired dispositions. Additionally, there will be discussion of how portfolio development may be one avenue to assist preservice teachers in realizing their beliefs about teaching and the dispositions desired for effective teaching. Dispositions Defined The search for a definition of teaching dispositions provided varied interpretations which led the author to believe that usage of the term disposition is inconsistent at best. From the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1973, disposition is defined as the following: 1. One's customary manner of emotional response; temperament "She has a lively, playful disposition, which delighted in anything ridiculous." (Jane Austen) 2. A tendency or inclination, especially when habitual: "A disposition to drink and aversion to humdrum toil was no novelty in early Kenya. …

Abstract: Treatment of conduct problems in the home setting has received much attention in the literature, and there are well established, empirically derived treatment programs that have been demonstrated to be effective However, treatment for conduct problems in the classroom has not received a comparable amount of attention, and the intervention programs are diverse, occasionally lacking empirical support, and often not consistent with strategies used in the home setting As past research has demonstrated that conduct problems in multiple settings is related to poorer prognosis, it is logical to suggest that interventions should focus on as many of the settings as possible in which a child displays the behaviour problems This paper reviews the literature on the effects of conduct problems in the classroom, on teacher managerial skills, and on interventions across the home and school settings It is concluded that classroom management of conduct problems could be improved by providing a hierarchical system of intervention strategies

Abstract: An in-depth case study of teachers' use of image processing (a state-of-the-art computer technology used by research scientists) in biology, earth science, and physics classes within one high school science department explored issues surrounding technology implementation. The study, conducted within a districtwide, schoolwide, and classroom context, explored four areas related to the teacher's adoption of image processing: (a) teachers' background with computers outside of instructional use, (b) teachers' attitudes toward educational technology and insights gained from their experience using computers within the science curriculum, (c) training and perceived influence of district and school administrators, and (d) teachers' classroom and computer lab practices. The following factors were deemed critical in teachers' decision to use or not use image processing with their students: (a) time to thoroughly explore and master the technology so they could use it with students to explore science concepts; (b) classroom management skills specific to technology use; (c) perception of the teaching value of the technology; (d) perception of the reasonableness of administrators' expectations for technology use; and (e) understanding of how to implement inquiry-based science teaching, independent of technology issues. These factors have implications for how to help teachers use computer technology to teach high school science. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 35: 297–327, 1998.

Abstract: A qualitative methodology, grounded theory, was used to examine the thoughts and emotions of teachers who delivered test feedback to students. The goal of this study was to develop a conceptual model of test-feedback processes that was grounded in observational and interview data. Seven college teachers were interviewed and observed as they planned and conducted testfeedback sessions. During the test-feedback sessions, these teachers experienced a variety of negative emotions when they encountered challenges from students in the classroom. Strategies developed by these teachers reflected their attempts to organize test feedback in ways that were consistent with their goals and beliefs, but that also limited their negative emotions and stress during the feedback session. These findings are discussed in terms of their contribution to existing research on teachers' interactive thought and emotion and on the ways that teachers cope with stress in the classroom.

Abstract: Teachers in this study participated in a 3-year grant funded by the U.S. Department of Education Fund for Innovation in Education. The purpose of the grant was to provide teachers with support in implementing standards-based education. Both treatment and control groups of teachers received instruction in implementing standards-based education from the school district. Teachers in the treatment group also received training in cognitive coaching and coached each other monthly as they implemented the standards. In addition, they received training in nonverbal classroom management, which is a set of nonverbal techniques designed to help teachers decrease the time spent managing in order to increase time spent helping students achieve the standards. Thirty-six coaches received training to provide teachers with feedback on their classroom management skills. Finally, teachers in the project met in monthly dialogue groups across grade levels with teachers from other schools to discuss their implementation of standards. Teachers in the treatment group compared to teachers in the control group increased significantly in teaching efficacy and attitudes toward school culture. Based on these findings, this model appears to have promise for increasing teacher professionalism and efficacy and helping teachers to implement innovations. (Contains 89 references and 14 tables.) (Author/SM) Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. THE EFFECTS OF COGNITIVE COACHING AND NONVERBAL CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT ON TEACHER EFFICACY AND PERCEPTIONS OF SCHOOL CULTURE

Abstract: Among educators, widespread concern at all levels about the quality of schools in our nation has led to renewed interest in the areas of teacher preparation and teacher induction. During the 1980's, the induction movement gained momentum throughout the country as a result of educational reforms and state mandates. One definition of teacher induction is the period of transition from student to professional. Educational researchers refer to the period of transition for beginning teachers as a period of induction (Brooks, 1987). According to Huling-Austin (1990), teacher induction should be considered as part of the teacher education continuum, that is, preservice, induction, and inservice. One goal of teacher induction is to provide ongoing assistance to teachers entering the profession through mentoring programs in order to enhance their effectiveness as teachers and increase their retention in the profession (Huling-Austin, 1990). Mentoring programs are designed for beginning teachers who have completed teacher education programs and who need supervision and support during their entry year. They enter the profession at different stages of development: some returning after a number of year absence; some beginning a second career at mid-life; and others starting their first job. A mentoring program can begin at any one of these points. State legislatures, including New Jersey's, have mandated mentoring programs as part of the teacher certification and licensing process in order to provide excellent teachers for educating their constituents. The goal of a mentoring program whether implemented at the state or local level is to offer intervention that orients new and returning teachers to the school and community and to provide instructional and interpersonal support that fosters professional development and retention as teachers. To design a mentoring program for a local school district, there are a number of suggestions for a mentor team to consider. A review of the research literature identities teacher educators, first year teachers, school administrators, and experienced teachers who offer advice, recollections, personal opinions, and descriptions of mentoring programs. (See the Bibliography for journals with themed issues on teacher induction and mentoring). Research on beginning teachers includes an examination of their problems and concerns. The major concerns of new teachers are discipline and classroom management (Elias, Fisher, & Simon, 1980; Veenman, 1984). Ryan et al (1980) identified personal life adjustment and the teaching assignment itself as two key areas of difficulty for beginning teachers. Veenman (1984) cited other perceived problems of beginning teachers including motivating students, planning lessons, and dealing with individual differences. Elias, Fisher & Simon (1980) also reported problems in finding and using appropriate materials. It seems that the more problems beginning teachers encounter, the more likely they will leave the profession (Veenman, 1984). Second, individual teachers' needs must be ascertained. Beginning teachers with fewer than three years of professional teaching experience from urban, suburban, and rural school districts were asked to respond to the question, "Based on your knowledge and understanding as new teachers, describe your ideas for a successful mentoring program." According to the interviewees, a successful mentoring program should be reactive to teachers' needs and reflective of positive educational strategies. …

Abstract: Preservice teachers often experience extreme stress during field experiences which can make them less effective and stunt professional growth. Through talking with students, reading their journals, noting comments on professor evaluations, and constant experimentation, the authors have developed diverse strategies that have been successful in alleviating undue anxiety. Described strategies include reflective and dialogue journals, visits by former students, collaborative teaching, observations of and interviews with supervising teachers, simple classroom management techniques, simulation lessons, debriefing sessions, non-threatening evaluation procedures, and avoidance of transmission of professors' stress. Readers may adapt these techniques to fit their own unique situations or develop similar strategies of their own. Introduction Teaching is an occupation with a high degree of work-related stress (Brissie, Hoover-Dempsey, & Bassler, 1988; Hipps & Halpin, 1992; Hollingsworth, 1990; Stamaman & Miller, 1992). According to Greer and Greer (1992), the highest risk for stress and burn-out may come at the beginning of an educator's career during preservice field experiences. Even though, preservice teachers may have high academic achievements in core university classes, success as a teacher in a school setting is not automatic, thus leading to anxiety and distress (Bowers, Eicher, & Sacks, 1983). Various researchers have studied factors associated with stress levels during student teaching. Much of the research has been qualitative based on observations and professional judgments. The findings of Bowers, Eicher, and Sacks (1983) indicate that preservice teachers are primarily concerned with affective matters (e.g., maintaining discipline, gaining respect of pupils, and developing appropriate relationships with pupils, parents, and other teachers) and instructional matters (e.g., knowledge of subject matter, use of strategies for instruction, utilizing child behavior principles, and providing for differences). Greet and Greer (1992) suggest that the personality traits of individuals attracted to teaching may make them predisposed to unrealistic expectations and idealism which may contribute to preservice stress. Sinclair and Nicoll (1980) state that student teachers perceive preservice experiences to be a test of not only their adequacy as teachers but as human beings as well. Jelinek (1986) proposes that stress can erode confidence in knowledge of content and as a professional in the classroom; however, it can also motivate a careless preservice teacher to perform more effectively. Cole and Knowles (1995) report that preservice teachers often experience emotional trauma and confusion regarding university supervisors' roles during field experiences. Numerous recommendations have been made to help ameliorate detrimental preservice stress levels. Greer and Greer (1992) suggest that the development of realistic expectations, the encouragement of detached concern, a better understanding of classroom successes/failures, and an introduction to various stress reduction techniques would be helpful in assisting future teachers in dealing more effectively with the stresses of teaching. They go on to advocate the utilization of mentoring by veteran teachers to reduce stress. Bowers, Eicher, and Sacks (1983) propose earlier field experiences and workshops for cooperating teachers to develop non-threatening supervisory and evaluation skills. They also advocate training for university supervisors to develop support systems for preservice teachers. In addition, preservice teachers need to learn to set realistic goals and practice techniques for self-evaluation/criticism as well as develop human relation skills. Furthermore, conferences with cooperating teachers well in advance of actual preservice teaching are beneficial to preservice teachers. Other authors have made additional suggestions. …

Abstract: Many teacher educators use case studies to promote reflection, sharpen observational skills, and foster understanding of classroom complexities. Effective P-12 classroom interventions may more likely occur if prospective teachers encounter teaching realities early in their preparation programs and learn how to translate the emerging knowledge base into professional practice. In this article, I outline a heuristic device designed to help prospective teachers analyze case vignettes in an educational psychology course and offer initial data supporting use of this device to promote pedagogical reasoning and reflection. Although some have called the 1990s the decade of the case study (see Wineburg, 1991) and a wide array of relevant case studies is available, how to best employ cases in teacher preparation remains a largely unanswered question. Some research studies and descriptive reports have begun to address the crucial issues related to this question. Silverman, Welty, and Lyon (1994) describe the case method of teaching as including discussion-based activities, active-learning orientations, question-based formats, and group process structures. They recommend critical questions to promote discussion rather than right answers and outline suggestions for the ideal physical setting for case analysis. Kleinfeld (1991) suggests the following analytic strategies for studying cases: spot the issues; distinguish between immediate crisis and underlying problem; develop strategy alternatives; and consider potential consequences, others' perspectives, and what may be at stake and at risk. Others have studied reflective teacher thinking in mathematics instruction (Barnett, 1991) or classroom management (Stoiber, 1991). Some have explored teacher reflection by the use of modeling, journaling, and think aloud strategies (Loughran, 1994). Schon (1983) outlined the importance of reflection in action and suggested that tacit knowledge and judgments are critical elements. He argued that the student cannot be taught what he needs to know, but he can be coached (Schon, 1987, p. 17, emphasis in original). He explained how skillful case teachers put students into a mode of operative attention by asking them not only to analyze a situation or say what others should do but also to say (on the basis of admittedly inadequate information) what they would do in the case situation they have analyzed (p. 323). According to this viewpoint, case teachers in such situations must help students learn how to frame problems, understand the tacit knowledge they bring to such situations, and value multiple theories of action. The details of how to help preservice teachers reflect on case studies remain unsettled in the literature. The following question is basic to exploring the problem: What types of cognitive processes are involved in teacher reflection and decision making and how can the teacher education curriculum teach such thinking? Theoretical Perspectives During the past decade, researchers have studied the cognitive aspects of teacher decision making. Shulman (1987) described teaching in terms of pedagogical reasoning where teachers think about teaching and base their actions on professional standards. Berliner (1985) envisioned the teacher as a decision maker who manages a complex set of interacting variables in a dynamic social environment (p. 6). Such advancements in ,he conceptual nature of the pedagogical process should ideally set the stage for a new breed of instructional and evaluational techniques for prospective teachers at different points in the curriculum. Because these techniques require more than visionary and theoretical stances, research must guide their development and implementation in teacher preparation. Berliner (1986) cited one of his research studies in which groups of teachers briefly viewed a classroom slide and explained what they saw. The postulants and novices offered literal descriptions of the scenes, while the experts provided a deeper analysis of the scene by making inferences and applying pedagogical knowledge (p. …