Classical school

Abstract: Over the past two decades the new classical macroeconomics has become the single most coherent school of macroeconomic thought. Always controversial, it has nonetheless captured centre-stage, and has become the standard by which competing schools of thought are judged. These volumes contain the most important and influential articles of the new classical school, as well as some important articles critical of new classical thinking. The volumes are arranged thematically, beginning with the rational expectations hypothesis and the application of general equilibrium to labour markets, and continuing with various new classical arguments for the ineffectiveness of government policy. The core of the volumes is Lucas’s famous critique of econometric policy

Abstract: Section I: THE FOUNDATIONS OF MODERN CRIMINOLOGY CLASSICAL SCHOOL Cesare Beccaria On Crimes and Punishments CLASSICAL SCHOOL Jeremy Bentham Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation POSITIVE SCHOOL Cesare Lombroso Crime: Its Causes and Remedies Section II: THE CHICAGO SCHOOL AND DERIVATIVES ECOLOGICAL THEORY Clifford R. Shaw & Henry D. McKay Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas CULTURE CONFLICT THEORY Thorsten Sellin The Conflict of Conduct Norms DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY Edwin H. Sutherland Differential Association SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Ronald L. Akers A Social Learning Perspective on Deviant Behavior Section III: STRAIN AND SUBCULTURE THEORIES ANOMIE THEORY Robert K. Merton Social Structure and Anomie SUBCULTURE THEORY Albert K. Cohen Delinquent Boys DIFFERENTIAL OPPORTUNITY THEORY Richard A. Cloward & Lloyd E. Ohlin Delinquency and Opportunity FOCAL CONCERN THEORY Walter B. Miller Lower Class Culture as a Generating Milieu of Gang Delinquency Section IV: LABELING THEORY LABELING THEORY Howard S. Becker Outsiders LABELING THEORY Edwin M. Lemert Secondary Deviance Section V: CONFLICT THEORIES CONFLICT THEORY Richard Quinney The Social Reality of Crime CONFLICT THEORY Steven Spitzer Toward a Marxian Theory of Deviance CONFLICT THEORY Austin T. Turk Political Criminality Section VI: SOCIAL CONTROL THEORIES TECHNIQUES OF NEUTRALIZATION Gresham M. Sykes & David Matza Techniques of Neutralization CONTAINMENT THEORY Walter C. Reckless A New Theory of Delinquency and Crime SOCIAL CONTROL THEORY Travis Hirschi A Control Theory of Delinquency Section VII: CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES ROUTINE ACTIVITY THEORY Lawrence E. Cohen & Marcus Felson A Routine Activity Approach FEMALE CRIMINALITY Dorie Klein The Etiology of Female Crime

Abstract: This article was first published in the Summer 2007 issue of Parameters. The newly issued Army/Marine counterinsurgency (COIN) manual has been met with well deserved acclaim. It is a product of our collective understanding of insurgency and ongoing experiences in Iraq. It is also the product of various schools of thought about modern insurgencies, including what can be called the classical school, based on the concepts of Mao and revolutionary warfare. (1) In this article I will attempt to capture the impact and implications of the classical school on the new doctrine, as well as evaluate the final product. The classicists focus, perhaps myopically, on the glorious heyday of revolutionary warfare in the 1950s and 1960s. They embrace the teachings of the British expert Robert Thompson and the French officer David Galula. (2) Numerous pundits have christened Galula as the modern Clausewitz of COIN. (3) Not surprisingly, Thompson and Galula's concepts pervade the recent Army/ Marine COIN manual, FM 3-24. Galula was a serious student of modern warfare, and following World War II spent the remainder of his career exploring revolutionary wars, from China to Vietnam. (4) But one senses that he would be startled by the complexity of Afghanistan and Iraq and the distinctly broader global insurgency of the Long War. The classicists ignore the uniqueness of Maoist or colonial wars of national liberation, and over-generalize the principles that have been drawn from them. Today's insurgent is not the Maoist of yesterday. (5) In point of fact, there is not as much common ground among the "masters" as the classicists would have you believe. (6) The so-called classical principles are really a commonly accepted set of key principles and practices that have emerged over time. Some of the classical principles are just blatant flashes of the obvious, such as Robert Thompson's somber advice "the government must have an overall plan." (Given our experience in Iraq, perhaps this principle is not so obvious after all). Other classical principles are not reflected in the writings and teachings of the masters, but have been absorbed over time. For example, the emphasis on "legitimacy" which pervades the classicist's mantra. The new field manual wisely notes that legitimacy is best defined by the host population. (7) The new COIN manual embraced these principles, along with an eclectic amalgamation of imperatives, paradoxes, and best practices. (8) A total of eight principles, five contemporary imperatives, ten paradoxes, and another dozen best practices are presented. (9) These various components were given great scrutiny during the drafting process and reflect both classical and contemporary influences. Overall, the new Army/Marine Corps counterinsurgency manual is a substantial step forward. In particular, the introductory and campaign design chapters represent fresh thinking. The chapters devoted to intelligence and the training of indigenous forces are also quite useful. But the manual is not without its shortcomings. The classicist's influence was a backdrop in the development of the manual. Early drafts were strongly criticized for the emphasis placed on Mao and revolutionary warfare. A writer's conference in February of 2006, hosted by then Lieutenant General David Petraeus at Fort Leavenworth provided an opportunity for the wider community to comment on the initial draft. The writing team, headed by Dr. Conrad Crane, the Director of the Army's Military History Institute, assessed inputs from a wide-range of experts, Iraq veterans, and international participants. The new doctrine's principal theme, a thread that cutting across the modern insurgency is the appropriate requirement to "learn and adapt.'' (10) This theme is ironic given the reaction that the manual received from outside experts. The manual's Foreword observes, "You cannot fight former Saddamists and Islamic extremists the same way you would have fought the Viet Cong, Moros, or Tupamaros. …

Abstract: 1. The Expansion of Criminological Theory 2. The Classical School 3. The Positivist School 4. The Functionalist Perspective 5. The Chicago School 6. The Control Theorists - Ayn Embar-Seddon 7. The Interactionist School - Cavit Cooley 8. Conflict/Radical Marxist Theories 9. Feminist Criminology 10. Peacemaking in Criminology