Campfire

Abstract: Part 1: Synthesis The Fundamentals of Community-based Natural Resource Management * Community-based Natural Resource Management and Rural Livelihoods * Political Economy, Governance and Community-based Natural Resource Management * Putting Out Fires: Does the 'C' in CBNRM Stand for Community or Centrifuge? * Reconciling Biodiversity Conservation with Rural Development: The Holy Grail of CBNRM? * Part 2: Case Studies - Community-based Natural Resource Management, Traditional Governance and Spiritual Ecology in Southern Africa: The Case of Chiefs, Deviners and Spirit Mediums * The Contribution of Bees to Livelihoods in Southern Africa * Everyday Resources are Valuable Enough for Community-based Natural Resource Management Programme Support: Evidence from South Africa * Community-based Resource Management in the Okavango Delta * Local Ecological Knowledge and the Basarwa in the Okavango Delta: The Case of Xaxaba, Ngamiland District * a Land Without Fences: Range Management in Lesotho * Beach Village Committees as a Vehicle for Community Participation: Lake Malombe/Upper Shire River Participatory Programme * Key Issues in Namibia's Communal Conservancy Movement * The Torra Conservancy in Namibia * The Tchumo Tchato Project in Mozambique: Community-based Natural Resource Management in Transition * The Richtersveld and Makuleke Contractual Parks in South Africa: Win-win for Communities and Conservation? *The Lungwa Integrated Rural Development Project, Zambia * Community Wildlife Management in Zimbabwe: The Case of CAMPFIRE in the Zambezi Valley * New Configurations of Power Around Mafaungautsi State Forest in Zimbabwe * Conclusions and Recommendation: What We Have Learned from a Decade of Experimentation * Index

Abstract: Part 1: Overview 1. Conservation in Transition Part 2: History of State-led Conservation 2. The Emergence of Parks and Conservation Narratives in Southern Africa 3. National Parks in South Africa 4. The Growth of Park Conservation in Botswana 5. The Emergence of Modern Conservation Practice in Zimbabwe 6. Protected Areas in Mozambique Part 3: Conservation on Private Land 7. Private Conservation in southern Africa: Practice and emerging Principles 8. Game Ranching in Namibia 9. Game Ranching in Zimbabwe 10. Extensive Wildlife Production on Private Land in South Africa 11. Save Valley Conservancy: A Large-scale African Experiment in Cooperative Wildlife Management Part 4: Community-based Natural Resource Management 12. Community Conservation in Southern Africa: Rights-based Natural Resource Management 13. The Performance of CAMPFIRE in Zimbabwe 1989-2006 14. CBNRM in Namibia: Growth, Trends, Lessons and Constraints 15. CBNRM in Botswana 16. CBNRM in Mozambique: The Challenges of Sustainability Part 5: Integrating Wildlife and Parks into the Social Landscape 17. Recent Innovations in Conservation 18. Changing Institutions to Respond to Challenges: North West Parks, South Africa 19. Making Conservation Work: Innovative Approaches to Meeting Conservation and Socio-economic Objectives (an Example from the Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa 20. Table Mountain National Park 21. A Network of Marine Protected Areas in Mozambique 22. Towards Transformation: Contractual National Parks in South Africa 23. Transfrontier Conservation Initiatives in Southern Africa: Observations from the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area 24. Making 'Conventional' Parks Relevant to All of Society: The Case of SANParks 25. Privately Managed Protected Areas Part 6: Conclusions 26: ~Innovations in State, Private and Communal Conservation

Abstract: CAMPFIRE programmes have been hailed internationally for the innovative ways in which they have sought to confront the challenges of some of Africa's most marginal regions through the promotion of local control over wildlife management. In Zimbabwe, CAMPFIRE has been cast as an antidote to the colonial legacy of technocratic and authoritarian development which had undermined people's control over their environment and criminalized their use of game. This article explores why such a potentially positive programme went so badly wrong in the case of Nkayi and Lupane districts, raising points of wider significance for comparable initiatives. Local histories and institutional politics need careful examination. The first part of the article thus investigates the historical forces which shaped attitudes to game, while the second part considers the powerful institutional and economic forces which conspired to sideline these historically formed local views. CAMPFIRE in Nkayi and Lupane was further shaped by the legacies of post-independence state violence in this region, and the failure of earlier wildlife projects. This range of factors combined to create deep distrust of CAMPFIRE, and quickly led to open confrontation.

Abstract: Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) is a long-term programmatic approach to rural development that uses wildlife and other natural resources as a mechanism for promoting devolved rural institutions and improved governance and livelihoods. The cornerstone of CAMPFIRE is the right to manage, use, dispose of, and benefit from these resources. Between 1989 and 2006, CAMPFIRE income, mostly from high valued safari hunting, totalled nearly USD$ 30 million, of which 52% was allocated to sub-district wards and villages for community projects and household benefits. Whilst a number of assumptions underlying the success of CAMPFIRE as an innovative model for CBNRM have yet to be met, CAMPFIRE confirms the concept that devolving responsibility and accountability for natural resource management can be highly effective for the collective and participatory management of such resources. Elephant numbers in CAMPFIRE areas have increased and buffalo numbers are either stable or decreased slightly during the life of the programme. However, offtake quotas for these two species have increased with a concomitant decline in trophy quality. Although the amount of wildlife habitat diminished after 1980, following the commencement of CAMPFIRE the rate of habitat loss slowed down and in some specific instances was even reversed. More recently there has been increased pressure on habitats and other natural resources as a consequence of deteriorating socio-economic conditions in the country. Where devolution has been successful, promising results have been achieved and the recent acceptance and implementation of direct payments to communities is probably the most significant development since 2000. That this has happened can be attributed to CAMPFIRE enabling communities to maximize their roles within the existing set of rules, and by so doing, allowing these rules to be challenged. Donor (73%) and government (27%) investments into the programme amounted to $35 million during the period 1989 to 2003. Since 2003 however, donor funding has been reduced to <$600,000 over the past 5 years.