Abstract: Two independent prospective longitudinal studies that cumulatively spanned the age interval from 4 years to 14 years used multiwave designs to investigate developmental associations between language and behavioral adjustment (internalizing and externalizing behavior problems). Altogether 224 children, their mothers, and teachers provided data. Series of nested path analysis models were used to determine the most parsimonious and plausible paths among the three constructs over and above stability in each across age and their covariation at each age. In both studies, children with poorer language skills in early childhood had more internalizing behavior problems in later childhood and in early adolescence. These developmental paths between language and behavioral adjustment held after taking into consideration children's nonverbal intellectual functioning, maternal verbal intelligence, education, parenting knowledge, and social desirability bias, as well as family socioeconomic status, and they applied equally to girls and boys.

Abstract: The practice of using children's human figure drawings (HFDs) to assess their intellectual ability is pervasive among psychologists and therapists in many countries. Since the first systematic scoring system for HFDs was published in 1926, their continued popularity has led to the development of several revised versions of the test. Most recently, the Draw-A-Person Intellectual Ability Test for children, adolescents, and adults (DAP:IQ) was published. It is the most up-to-date form of HFD test designed to assess intellectual functioning across a wide age range. In the present study, we assessed the validity of the DAP:IQ as a screening measure of intelligence in both children and adults. In Experiment 1, 100 4- to 5-year-old children completed the DAP:IQ and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Third Edition. In Experiment 2, 100 adults completed the DAP:IQ and the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence. In both experiments, we found only weak to modest correlations between scores on the DAP:IQ and the Wechsler tests. Furthermore, when we compared individual's scores on the two tests, the DAP:IQ yielded high false positive and false negative rates when screening for borderline and superior intellectual functioning. Based on these findings, and based on the lack of validity of previous HFD tests, we conclude that practitioners should not rely on HFD tests as a projective measure of intelligence.

Abstract: Children with sickle cell disease (SCD) are at risk for neurocognitive impairment and poor academic achievement, although there is limited research on factors predicting academic achievement in this population. This study explores the relative contribution to academic achievement of a comprehensive set of factors, such as environmental (socioeconomic status), disease-related (stroke, transfusion therapy, adherence) and psychosocial variables [child behaviour, child quality of life (QoL)], controlling for intellectual functioning (IQ). Eighty-two children with SCD completed measures assessing IQ and academic achievement, while parents completed questionnaires assessing adherence, child behaviour and child QoL. Medical chart reviews were conducted to determine disease-related factors. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that 55% of the variance in academic skills were accounted for by IQ, parent education, chronic transfusion status and QoL [R 2 = 0.55, F (5,77) = 18.34, p < 0.01]. Follow-up analyses...

Abstract: Aim To investigate the association between magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) patterns and motor function, epileptic episodes, and IQ or developmental quotient in patients born at term with spastic diplegia. Method Eighty-six patients born at term with cerebral palsy (CP) and spastic diplegia (54 males, 32 females; median age 20y, range 7–42y) among 829 patients with CP underwent brain MRI between 1990 and 2008. The MRI and clinical findings were analysed retrospectively. Intellectual disability was classified according to the Enjoji developmental test or the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (3rd edition). Results The median ages at diagnosis of CP, assignment of Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) level, cognitive assessment, and MRI were 2 years (range 5mo–8y), 6 years (2y 8mo–19y), 6 years (1y 4mo–19y), and 7 years (10mo–30y) respectively. MRI included normal findings (41.9%), periventricular leukomalacia, hypomyelination, and porencephaly/periventricular venous infarction. The frequency of patients in GMFCS levels III to V and intellectual disability did not differ between those with normal and abnormal MRI findings. Patients with normal MRI findings had significantly fewer epileptic episodes than those with abnormal ones (p=0.001). Interpretation Varied MRI findings, as well as the presence of severe motor dysfunction and intellectual disability (despite normal MRI), suggest that patients born at term with spastic diplegia had heterogeneous and unidentified pathophysiology.

Abstract: Contents: N.A. Krasnegor, Introduction. Part I:Neurobehavioral Functioning. H. Als, F.H. Duffy, G.B. McAnulty, N. Badian, Continuity of Neurobehavioral Functioning in Preterm and Fullterm Newborns. M. Sigman, L. Beckwith, S.E. Cohen, A.H. Parmelee, Stability in the Biosocial Development of the Child Born Preterm. Part II:Physical Status. S.H. Broman, Infant Physical Status and Later Cognitive Development. R.Q. Bell, M.F. Waldrop, Achievement and Cognitive Correlates of Minor Physical Anomalies in Early Development. Part III:Traditional Infant Tests. L.S. Siegel, A Reconceptualization of Prediction from Infant Test Scores. J.V. Hunt, B.A.B. Cooper, Differentiating the Risk for High-Risk Preterm Infants. I.C. Uzgiris, Transformations and Continuities: Intellectual Functioning in Infancy and Beyond. Part IV:Information Processing Capacities. M.H. Bornstein, Stability in Early Mental Development: From Attention and Information Processing in Infancy to Language and Cognition in Childhood. S.A. Rose, Measuring Infant Intelligence: New Perspectives. Part V:Experience R.H. Bradley, The Use of the HOME Inventory in Longitudinal Studies of Child Development C.T. Ramey, M.W. Lee, M.R. Burchinal, Developmental Plasticity and Predictability: Consequences of Ecological Change. R. Bakeman, L.B. Adamson, J.V. Brown, M. Eldridge, Can Early Interaction Predict: How and How Much? M.I. Appelbaum, M.R. Burchinal, R.A. Terry, Quantification Methods and the Search for Continuity R. Plomin, Developmental Behavior Genetics: Stability and Instability O.H. Feldman, M.L. Adams, Intelligence, Stability, and Continuity: Changing Conceptions .

Abstract: Purpose The purpose of our study is to describe intellectual functioning in three common childhood epilepsy syndromes – frontal lobe epilepsy (FLE), childhood absence epilepsy (CAE) and benign epilepsy with centro-temporal spikes (BECTS). And also to determine the influence of epilepsy related variables, type of epilepsy, age at epilepsy onset, duration and frequency of epilepsy, and treatment on the scores. Methods Intellectual functioning was examined in a group of 90 children with epilepsy (30 FLE, 30 CAE, 30 BECTS), aged 6–15 years, and compared with a control group (30). All subjects obtained a Full Scale IQ≥70 and they were receiving no more than two antiepileptic medications. Participants completed the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Third Edition. The impact of epilepsy related variables (type of epilepsy, age at epilepsy onset, duration of epilepsy, seizure frequency and anti-epileptic drugs) on intellectual functioning was examined. Results Children with FLE scored significantly worse than controls on WISC-III Verbal IQ, Full Scale IQ and Processing Speed Index. There was a trend for children with FLE to have lower intelligence scores than CAE and BECTS groups. Linear regression analysis showed no effect for age at onset, frequency of seizures and treatment. Type of epilepsy and duration of epilepsy were the best indicators of intellectual functioning. Conclusion It is crucial that children with FLE and those with a longer active duration of epilepsy are closely monitored to allow the early identification and evaluation of cognitive problems, in order to establish adequate and timely school intervention plans.

Abstract: A review of hospital records was conducted for children evaluated for autism spectrum disorders who completed both the Leiter International Performance Scale—Revised (Leiter-R) and Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, 5th Edition (SB5). Participants were between 3 and 12 years of age. Diagnoses were autistic disorder (n = 26, 55%) and pervasive developmental disorder–not otherwise specified (n = 21, 45%). Analysis showed that the full sample received significantly higher scores on the Leiter-R than SB5 (mean discrepancy of 20.91 points), specific diagnosis was not a significant factor, and younger children had a larger discrepancy between tests. These analyses strongly suggest that the Leiter-R and the SB5 may not be equivalent measures of intellectual functioning in children with autism spectrum disorders, and that use of one or the other exclusively could lead to misclassification of intellectual capacity.

Abstract: Past research has shown that rapport and cooperation between individuals is related to the level of nonverbal synchrony they achieve in their interactions. This study investigates the extent to which staff and clients with mild to borderline intellectual disability achieve interactional synchrony in daily social interactions. Whilst there has been work examining how staff can adapt their verbal communication to help achieve better mutual understanding, there has been an absence of work concerning the responsiveness of staff and clients regarding their nonverbal behavior. Nineteen staff members video-recorded a social interaction with one of their clients in which the client had a need for support. The recordings were analyzed using cross recurrence quantification analysis. In addition, fifteen staff members as well as clients with an intellectual disability completed a questionnaire on the quality of the nineteen video-recorded interactions. Analysis of the nonverbal patterns of interaction showed that the staff–client dyads achieved interactional synchrony, but that this synchrony is not pervasive to all nonverbal behaviors. The client observers appeared to be more sensitive to this synchrony or to value it more highly than the staff raters. Staff observers were sensitive to quantitative measures of talking. The more staff in the interactions talked, the lower the quality rating of the interaction. The more the clients talked, the more positively the staff observers rated the interactions. These findings have implications for how collaborative relationships between clients and support workers should be understood.

Abstract: The following article discusses the relationship between the model of intellectual disability and the attitudes towards sexuality of people with disabilities. This correlation has been verified during the author’s own research conducted on students of several medical faculties such as nursing, public health, emergency medical services and physiotherapy. Tools of the author’s design have been used in the research. Likert-type scale “Perspective of intellectual disability” has been used to determine the model of disability seen from the medical (individual) or social perspective. To examine the attitudes towards sexuality two tools of the author’s own design have been used: a Likert-type scale “The essence of sexuality in persons with an intellectual disability” which has been used to analyze the cognitive aspect of the attitudes, and a semantic differential with notions concerning physical and psychosocial aspects of sexuality including the affective-evaluative aspect. As expected, significant correlations have been found between the model and the attitudes both in the cognitive and the affective-evaluative aspect. Higher scores for the individual model correlated with: (a) lover scores for most aspects of sexuality of people with intellectual disability, (b) perceiving them as asexual, (c) biological determinism in the sexual sphere. The social model concurred with positive values given to sexuality of people with intellectual disability and its normalization in the sphere of its determinants and symptoms.

Abstract: Objective Children with FASD display a heterogeneous profile and may have deficits in physical, behavioural, emotional, and social functioning, as the result of prenatal alcohol exposure. The major objective of the current study was to identify if a specific pattern of neuropsychological functioning exists among children prenatally exposed to alcohol who received a diagnosis, versus exposed children who did not. We compared groups on domains of intellectual functioning, memory, attention, executive functioning, motor functioning, language/communication and achievement. Methods One hundred and seventy children who were seen in the clinic between 2005 and 2009 were included in this study. Out of the total 170 children seen, 109 received an FASD diagnosis. Results We identified a specific neuropsychological profile that typifies children diagnosed with an FASD versus those exposed prenatally to alcohol, who did not receive a diagnosis. Diagnosed children displayed a neuropsychological profile characterized by weaknesses in the areas of verbal reasoning, memory, overall language functioning, math reasoning and calculation. Groups did not differ on measures of attention or executive functioning. Conclusion The information gained from these analyses, are essential for informing best practices for diagnosis and treatment.

Abstract: In the year 2012, an estimated 15.4 million family members and friends provided 17.5 billion hours of unpaid care - valued at 216 billion dollars - to those with Alzheimer's and other dementias (Alzheimer's Association, 2013a). These statistics are profound when put in perspective of the untrained and unpaid services that these families and friends provide to their loved ones. Alzheimer's disease, which accounts for 60-80% of all dementias, is projected to affect 16 million people by 2050, and is the fifth leading cause of death for those above 65 years of age (Alzheimer's Association, 2012). The term dementia is an umbrella term that is used to describe a disease or condition that affects the brain's ability to function properly (Alzheimer's Association, 2012).Dementia is not a specific disease, but a descriptive term for a collection of symptoms that can be caused by a number of disorders that affect the brain. People with dementia have significantly impaired intellectual functioning that interferes with normal activities and relationships. They also lose their ability to solve problems and maintain emotional control, and they may experience personality changes and behavioral problems, such as agitation, delusions, and hallucinations. While memory loss is a common symptom of dementia, memory loss by itself does not mean that a person has dementia. Doctors diagnose dementia only if two or more brain functions, such as memory and language skills, are significantly impaired without loss of consciousness (National Institute of Health, 2012, p.1).According to the World Health Organization (2013), dementia is one of the most significant causes of disability among seniors globally. In addition to the functional limitations experienced by those diagnosed with this progressive disorder, their family caregivers also experience a profound negative impact on their physical, emotional and economic well-being (WHO, 2013).Due to cognitive changes it is often unsafe for persons with dementia to live alone and they are often cared for by a family member and/or a friend. Although drugs are available for the management of some dementia related symptoms, there is no drug that can arrest the progression of the disease. Members of the immediate family, such as spouses and/or adult children, often take on the responsibility of caring for a person with dementia (Alzheimer's Association, 2013a). Research suggests that caregivers often feel unprepared after a family member receives a diagnosis of dementia (Chenoweth & Spencer, 1986; Gibson & Anderson, 2011; Takai, et al., 2011). Additionally, family caregivers often struggle to understand the cognitive decline and associated behavioral changes of their loved one, often ascribe a negative meaning to their relative's behavior, and blame the person rather than the disease (Vernooij-Dassen, Draskovic, McCleery, & Downs, 2011).Having formal support services in place to educate family caregivers could improve their understanding of the expected functional decline of their care recipients, as well as provide coping mechanisms during caregiving. Clearly there is a need for family caregivers to be educated about available formal and informal resources. For example, Ducharme et al. (2011) found that more than half of caregivers they studied had a low level of knowledge of formal services that were available to support persons with dementia. Caregivers of persons with dementia had a higher level of unmet needs for formal services and faced more barriers in accessing services when compared to other caregivers of chronically ill patients (Harmell et al., 2011; Stirling et al., 2010). However, much of the research on dementia caregivers is centered on psychological well-being such as stress, depression, and anxiety (Brodaty & Donkin, 2009; Gaugler et al., 2008; Harmell et al., 2011, Takai et al., 2011). Although there is evidence to suggest that an increase in caregiver's mastery and self-efficacy leads to better coping, which in turn has a protective effect on their well-being (Harmell et al. …

Abstract: Neurofibromatosis-1 is the most common single gene disorder affecting 1 in 3000. In children, it is associated not only with physical features but also with attention and learning problems. Research has identified a downward shift in intellectual functioning as well, but to date, there are no published studies about the everyday adaptive behavior of children with NF1. In this study, parental reports of adaptive behavior of 61 children with NF1 ages 3 through 8 were compared to an unaffected contrast group (n = 55) that comprised siblings and community members. Significant group differences in adaptive skills were evident and were largely related to group differences in intellectual functioning. In a subsample of children with average-range intellectual functioning, group differences in parent-reported motor skills were apparent even after controlling statistically for group differences in intellectual functioning. The implications of the findings for the care of children with NF1 are discussed.

Abstract: Abuse of substances by persons with a mild or borderline intellectual disability (IQ 50-85) (ID) is frequently missed, as our cases illustrate. The first client, a 19-year-old man, denied illicit drug use on admittance to a facility for persons with ID. His mood swings, irritability, and fatigue could eventually be attributed to cannabis and cocaine use. The second client, a 35-year old woman with a history of cocaine dependency developed social, financial, and emotional problems. These were first attributed to her ID in combination with borderline personality traits and ADHD. It took a year and a half before these symptoms were recognized as signs of a relapse in the use of cocaine. The third client, a 38-year old woman, referred for recurrent alcohol intoxications, appeared to use other substances as well. Systematic and comprehensive screening for signs of substance use and discussing this issue in an empathetic, non-judgmental manner can contribute to earlier identification and referral to substance use treatment.

Abstract: People with mild or borderline intellectual disabilities are a group of people who usually do not meet the eligibility criteria for specialist disability services, yet are high users of many generalist services, such as mental health, child protection, and criminal justice systems. They may traverse many services, often entering, exiting, and returning to the same service providers with few positive results. This article explores the practice approach of the Meryton Association, a medium-sized nongovernment agency located in Brisbane, Australia. The Meryton Association provides social work support to people with mild to borderline intellectual disabilities, actively assisting this group to build relationships, resources, knowledge, and autonomy in their everyday lives. Using qualitative in-depth interviews with Meryton Association staff and secondary analysis of Meryton Association policy and practice documents, the challenges and opportunities of using this practice approach have been documented. The article proposes that specialist services are needed that use a developmental approach, stress the importance of relationship, and the need to practice gentleness and hope in social worker-client interaction.

Abstract: “Which test provides the better measurement of intelligence, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition (WAIS-III) or the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV)?” is an important question to professional psychologists; however, it has become a critical issue in Atkins cases wherein courts are often presented with divergent Full-Scale IQ (FSIQ) scores on the WAIS-III and WAIS-IV. In these instances, courts are required to render a decision stating which test provided the better measure of an inmate's intellectual functioning. This study employed structural equation modeling to empirically determine which instrument; the WAIS-III or the WAIS-IV, provides the better measure of intelligence via the FSIQ score. Consistent with the publisher's representation of intellectual functioning, the results from this study indicate the WAIS-IV provides superior measurement, scoring, and structural models to measure FSIQ when compared to the WAIS-III.

Abstract: Children's ability to shift behavior in response to changing environmental demands is critical for successful intellectual functioning. While the processes underlying the development of cognitive control have been thoroughly investigated, its functioning in an ecologically relevant setting such as school is less well understood. Given the alarming number of children who face failure in the U.S. school system, the purpose of this project is to determine whether subtly different measures of cognitive control differentially predict academic achievement. Sixty-five kindergarten children were given two versions of a Dimensional Change Card Sort task—a geometric version followed by a linguistic version. Educational outcomes consisted of a standardized measure of academic achievement as well as assessments used by the school district. Results revealed that cognitive control, particularly as assessed by the linguistic variant, predicted children's academic performance on math and school-based assessments, thereby suggesting that deficient cognitive control negatively impacts educational success.

Abstract: We address a gap in the literature on civil competency by examining characteristics of those who undergo civil competency evaluations and how well Managing Money and Health and Safety subscales of the Independent Living Scales (ILS) predict legal competency adjudications. We were also interested whether these subscales are more accurate in making such predictions than the Mini-Mental State Examination and Trail-Making Test, Parts A and B, well-known measures of neuropsychological functioning. Actual legal competency decisions were obtained from public court records on 71 individuals with either mental retardation/borderline intellectual functioning (MR/BIF) or psychiatric, neurological, or combined psychiatric or neurological diagnoses. We found that those with neurological diagnoses performed significantly better on the Trail-Making Test, Part A, than the MR/BIF and combined neurological and psychiatric groups, and they demonstrated trends in the same direction for other measures. Both ILS subscales performed better than the cognitive measures, in terms of both hit rate and predictive value, in predicting ultimate judicial decision-making about competency. These findings are particularly relevant for clinicians who must decide what measures to include in an assessment battery in civil competency evaluations.

Abstract: The study explored the predictive validity of Multiplex Empirically Guided Inventory of Ecological Aggregates for Assessing Sexually Abusive Children and Adolescents (Ages 4 to 19) (MEGA♪; Miccio-Fonseca, 2006b), a comprehensive developmentally sensitive risk assessment outcome tool. MEGA♪ assesses risk for coarse sexual improprieties and/or sexually abusive behavior in male and female youth ages 4 to 19 years (adjudicated and nonadjudicated), including youth with low (i.e., borderline) intellectual functioning. MEGA♪ has 4 distinct risk scales with robust internal consistency reliability on cross-validation: Risk Scale (0.81), Protective Scale (0.78), Estrangement Scale (0.79), and Persistent Sexual Deviancy Scale (0.74). Sexual recidivism in cross-validation (N = 1,056) was 8.4%, defined as sexually related probation or parole violation (formal or informal). ROC analysis for Risk Scale demonstrated MEGA♪ has good predictive validity (AUC = .71, 95% CI of .62–.80, p < .001). Youth with low intellectual f...

Abstract: Background Ventricular assist devices (VADs) have been associated with high rates of neurologic injury in pediatric patients during the period of support, but the delayed consequences of this type of injury have not been described in the literature. Methods In this study we assess cognitive outcomes with indices of general intellectual functioning, including working memory, processing speed, perceptual reasoning and verbal comprehension, for pediatric heart transplant recipients who required VAD support as a bridge to transplant ( n = 9). We present an aggregate of these VAD patients combined with heart transplant recipients who did not require mechanical circulatory support ( n = 11), and compare the performance of all transplant patients ( n = 20) to typically developing, healthy comparators ( n = 12). We also present a post hoc analysis of those transplant recipients with significant medical morbidity in the first year of life, referred to as the "high-risk" transplant group ( n = 5), and compare them with the "low-risk" transplant group ( n = 15) and the typically developing comparators ( n = 12). Results The mean performance of the VAD patients was in the average range for each of the examined indices of cognitive functioning. A total of 11% of the VAD patients performed in the impaired range and 78% performed in the average range, with 11% in the superior range on measures of general intellectual functioning. The typically developing participants performed significantly better than the aggregated transplant recipients on all indices except verbal comprehension. Lower cognitive performance in the combined transplant group appears to be associated with medical morbidity in the first year of life. Conclusions Despite significant neurologic risk factors, this cohort of pediatric patients who were bridged to transplant with VAD demonstrated resiliency in terms of cognitive outcomes. In this heterogeneous population, it is likely that multiple factors contributed to the cognitive outcomes. As VAD use becomes more common in pediatric patients, a prospective evaluation of cognitive outcomes is warranted.

Abstract: We report on the etiology of poor school performance (PSP) in children assessed at a learning disability clinic in western India over 12 months. Specific learning disabilities (dyslexia, dysgraphia and dyscalculia) were the commonest cause of PSP (72.76%), followed by borderline intellectual functioning (8.94%), language barrier (8.54%), and mental retardation (4.88%).

Abstract: Studies that use the Iowa Gambling Task and its age-appropriate versions as indices of affective decision-making during childhood and adolescence have demonstrated significant individual differences in scores. Our study investigates the association between general intellectual functioning and socioeconomic status and its effect on the development of affective decision-making in preschoolers by using a computerised version of the Children’s Gambling Task (CGT). We administered the CGT and the Columbia Mental Maturity Scale (CMMS) to 137 Brazilian children between the ages of 3 and 5 years old to assess their general intellectual functioning. We also used the Brazilian Criterion of Economic Classification (CCEB) to assess their socioeconomic status. Age differences between 3-and 4-year-olds, but not between 4-and 5-year-olds, confirmed the results obtained by Kerr and Zelazo (2004), indicating the rapid development of affective decision-making during the preschool period. Both 4- and 5-year-olds performed significantly above chance on blocks 3, 4 and 5 of the CGT, whereas 3-year-olds’ mean scores did not differ from chance. We found that general reasoning ability was not related to affective decision-making. On the other hand, our findings showed that children with high socioeconomic status (SES) performed better on the last block of the CGT in comparison to children with low SES. We also found that more children from the high SES group performed better in comparison to children from the low SES group, which indicates that children from the former group seem more likely to use the information about the gain/loss aspects of the decks to efficiently choose cards from the advantageous deck throughout the task.