Abstract: The Declaration of Helsinki is a respected institution and one of the most influential documents in research ethics,1w1-w7 having withstood five revisions and two clarifications since its conception in 1964. Its guardian, the World Medical Association, recently invited submissions for further revision.2 The history of the declaration has been well documented.3 4 5 The Nuremberg Code (1947) was one of the first statements of the ethical principles involved in human experimentation.w8 However, because of its association with Nazi war crimes it had relatively little effect on practice.w9 The Declaration of Helsinki dealt with clinical research more directly, but was portrayed as a weakening of the stringent protections of Nuremberg. Nevertheless, for a quarter of a century only minor changes were made and it became engrained in the international culture of research ethics. In 1996, the declaration added a reference to placebos in response to concerns about trials in perinatal HIV transmission in developing countries. Critics pointed out that continuing to use placebos when efficacy had been demonstrated implied a different ethical standard for developing countries than for developed ones. Having entered into the specifics of trial design the declaration was drawn into a debate on whether ethical principles are universal or are relative to the context in which they are applied6 and also into related principles of research in developing countries. The World Medical Association was then pressured to make more radical reforms. An American proposal, seen by some as a further attempt to weaken the declaration, resulted in a vigorous debate, but despite lack of consensus and strong feelings by some that it should not be changed,7 a major revision was approved in 2000. This did little to improve acceptance. Concerns were also expressed that the cumulative changes represented a shift towards protecting the efficiency of research at the expense of the protection of human subjects. A division between developed and developing countries also emerged with claims of American ethical imperialism,6 8w10 although new emphasis on social justice and a duty to benefit communities as well as individuals received praise. Complaints about clarity resulted in the addition of footnotes in 2002 and 2004, but this also failed to achieve global endorsement. The situation was further complicated by the appearance of other guidelines, including those from the Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences,w11 the Nuffield Council,w12 and Unesco (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation),w13 which were seen to be potentially conflicting. It was even suggested that the declaration was out of touch and irrelevant.9 The debate on the future of the declaration raises several fundamental questions about the essential purpose of the declaration, its structure (basic principles or procedural rules), its status (static or dynamic), the extent to which it can influence understanding and practice, and the nature and limits of universality in ethics. The nature of the declaration has progressively changed from simply restating Nuremberg as an ethical code to being increasingly prescriptive.10 The more procedurally based it has become the more divergent opinion has become, with calls for reversion to the simplicity and conciseness of a Nuremberg-like document. Other guidelines by contrast provide detailed commentaries, and the declaration may fail by being neither code nor commentary. The arguments surrounding the declaration point to a failure to clearly separate related but distinct concepts—standard of care, ethical standards, ethical principles, and the operationalisation of principles. Whether “ethical standards” are considered universal will depend on what exactly is meant by this term. They have been criticised as representing the North American context in which they were formulated.11 The more that basic principles are elaborated, the more room there is for interpretation and dissent. Among core ethical principles, respect for the individual's autonomy and their community have traditionally been considered the most important. The principle of autonomy has recently undergone much rethinking. Autonomy should not be thought of as always completely free of external influence, but to be relational, constrained by factors such as health, social relationships, sex, and power inequality.w14 The debate has occurred within too narrow a formal framework, without sufficient attention to the inherent inequalities and vulnerability that characterise the relationship between subjects and researchers. It requires reframing by stating that respect for the individual needs to encompass both their individuality and the cultural and relationship factors that shape their decision making. The World Medical Association needs to respond to criticisms that a lack of transparency in its revision process does not reflect the spirit of openness and disclosure in articles 11, 16, and 27 of the declaration. Similar considerations of transparency should apply to all aspects of the conduct and results of research itself, as described in the Ottawa Statement (ottawagroup.ohri.ca/index.html). The declaration has only limited direct legal authority1 but has gained considerable moral authority. As such it is more symbolic than instrumental. Symbolic function is evident by people's attitude towards it, and the frequency with which they use it to justify their opinions. Its instrumental role derives from direct reference in legal statutes, and indirectly through influence on legislators and courts.1 It is difficult to estimate how effective the declaration is. Claims that it is violated daily raise questions as to how effective it can be in the absence of monitoring or enforcement. However, a complete understanding of the role of the declaration requires us to recognise that it represents an external imposed morality, not the researcher's own internal morality,w15 which limits its ability to influence practice. Ethical research is a collective responsibility. Unless researchers incorporate the ethical principles outlined by codes such as Helsinki into their own and the collective morality12 they will remain simply words. The Declaration of Helsinki is a brave venture and “the property of all humanity,”4 which has the potential to continue to promote high ethical standards and protect the vulnerable, but only if we embrace it. The declaration's strength lies in its core principles, which are a moral compass transcending procedural rules and revisions.

Abstract: The concept of learner autonomy is often applied to the process and content of language learning but not specifically to its intended outcome, the development of proficiency in a second or foreign language. Against this tendency, the present paper argues for an understanding of language learner autonomy in which the development of learner autonomy and the growth of target language proficiency are mutually supporting and fully integrated with each other. It further argues that only on the basis of such an understanding can learner autonomy move to the centre of language teaching theory and practice. The paper begins by considering the origins of the universally accepted definition of learner autonomy, ‘the ability to take charge of one's own learning’. It then briefly reviews social-psychological and cognitive evidence in favour of promoting learner autonomy before discussing constructivist theories of pedagogy and their implications for a theory of language learner autonomy. From this it derives three fun...

Abstract: Eminent moral philosopher Michael Slote argues that care ethics presents an important challenge to other ethical traditions and that a philosophically developed care ethics should, and can, offer its own comprehensive view of the whole of morality. Taking inspiration from British moral sentimentalism and drawing on recent psychological literature on empathy, he shows that the use of that notion allows care ethics to develop its own sentimentalist account of respect, autonomy, social justice, and deontology. Furthermore, he argues that care ethics gives a more persuasive account of these topics than theories offered by contemporary Kantian liberalism. The most philosophically rich and challenging exploration of the theory and practice of care to date, The Ethics of Care and Empathy also shows the manifold connections that can be drawn between philosophical issues and leading ideas in the fields of psychology, education, and women's studies.

Abstract: This paper highlights some of the central ethical challenges involved in undertaking social science research with refugees in conflict and crisis situations. It focuses on two main sets of challenges: first the difficulties of constructing an ethical consent process and obtaining genuinely informed consent; and second taking fully into account and responding to refugee participants capacities for autonomy. The authors also discuss the challenges involved in applying the central normative principles governing ethics review processes-the principles of beneficence integrity respect for persons autonomy and justice-to the context of refugee research. It is argued that researchers should seek ways to move beyond harm minimization as a standard for ethical research and recognize an obligation to design and conduct research projects that aim to bring about reciprocal benefits for refugee participants and/or communities. Some of the methodological issues raised by this analysis are discussed in the conclusion. (authors)

Abstract: This article proposes a short list of internationally – comparable indicators of individual agency and empowerment (and the corresponding survey questions). Data from these indicators would enable researchers to explore research and policy issues such as the interconnections between empowerment and economic or human development. The article surveys definitions of agency and empowerment, adopts the definition from Amartya Sen, supplemented by Rowlands’ typology. The proposed ‘short list’ of indicators includes; control over personal decisions; domain-specific autonomy; household decision-making; and the ability to change aspects in one’s life at the individual and communal levels. The strengths and weaknesses of each indicator are discussed, as is the need to supplement this shortlist with other variables. To ensure the feasibility of the proposal, we rely on previously-fielded questions wherever possible.

Abstract: This article proposes a short list of internationally comparable indicators of individual agency and empowerment (and the corresponding survey questions) Data from these indicators would enable researchers to explore research and policy issues such as the interconnections between empowerment and economic or human development The paper surveys definitions of agency and empowerment and adopts the definition from Amartya Sen, supplemented by Rowlands' typology The proposed “shortlist” of indicators includes: control over personal decisions; domain-specific autonomy; household decision-making; and the ability to change aspects in one's life at the individual and communal levels The strengths and weaknesses of each indicator are discussed, as is the need to supplement this shortlist with other variables To ensure the feasibility of the proposal, we rely on previously fielded questions wherever possible

Abstract: Acknowledgements Synopsis 1 Introduction: The Idea of a Moral Theory of International Law PART I: JUSTICE 2 The Commitment to Justice 3 Human Rights 4 Distributive Justice and International Law PART II: LEGITIMACY 5 Political Legitimacy 6 Recognitional Legitimacy 7 The Legitimacy of the International Legal System PART III: SELF-DETERMINATION 8 Self-Determination and Secession 9 Intra-state Autonomy PART IV: REFORM 10 Principled Proposals for Reform 11 The Morality of International Legal Reform Bibliography Index

Abstract: This essay takes on the broad question - what explains the political pursuits of religious actors? - by exploring two powerful influences on these pursuits. The first is differentiation, or the degree of autonomy between religious actors and states in their basic authority. The second is political theology, the set of ideas that religious actors hold about political authority and justice. Through global comparisons across religions, regions, and states, it seeks to establish the effect of both influences on two political pursuits in which religion’s role is hotly debated today: support for democratization and political violence, including communal violence and terrorism. It concludes with lessons learned commonly from the analysis of both pursuits.

Abstract: 1. Introduction: The Politics of Our Selves2. Foucault, Subjectivity, and the Enlightenment: A Critical Reappraisal3. The Impurity of Practical Reason: Power and Autonomy in Foucault4. Dependency, Subordination, and Recognition: Butler on Subjection5. Empowering the Lifeworld? Autonomy and Power in Habermas6. Contextualizing Critical Theory7. Engendering Critical TheoryNotesBibliographyIndex

Abstract: The aim of this study was to explore independence in the home as experienced by very old single-living people in Sweden. A grounded theory approach was used and interviews were conducted with 40 men and women aged 80-89. Data analysis revealed the core category "Home as a signification of independence" with two main categories: "Struggle for independence" and "Governing daily life". The findings showed that home is strongly linked to independence, and being independent is extremely valued. Explicit descriptions of the ageing process as an individual process of changing living conditions within the home emerged from the findings. Hence, the ageing process influences the participants' perception of themselves as independent persons. Along the ageing process the participants' view of independence changed from being independent in activity performance without help from others to experiencing independence in being able to make autonomous decisions concerning daily life at home. Consequently, there is a need to develop strategies to support very old people in staying as active and independent as possible in their own homes. In addition, since the findings highlight that independence is a complex construct, there is a need for conceptual differentiation between independence and a construct often used synonymously, namely autonomy.

Abstract: The paper seeks to broaden concerns about dignity at work beyond issues of bullying and harassment to the whole range of circumstances which support or tend to undermine employees' dignity, and argues for their consideration by critical management studies. It does so by drawing both upon empirical studies and moral philosophy to improve understanding of the nature and sources of dignity. It deals first with the relationship of dignity to autonomy, dependence, seriousness and trust, and discusses how dignity and respect might be maintained in a context in which instrumental relations to others are dominant. It then examines the difference that inequalities make to the maintenance of dignity, and addresses the ways in which particular kinds of work afford employees dignity, or make it difficult to maintain. The conclusion summarizes the main ways in which dignity at work can be supported.

Abstract: Faced with the challenges in today's acute care environment, 15% of the nurses in one study reported resigning a position due to experiencing moral distress Moral distress is the physical or emotional suffering that is experienced when constraints (internal or external) prevent one from following the course of action that one believes is right With more responsibility than authority, nurses often lack the autonomy to do what they feel should be done Nurses often seem unaware of moral distress experience in themselves Feelings labeled as stress, burnout, emotional exhaustion, and job dissatisfaction may actually be symptomatic of moral distress An organizational commitment to addressing the issue of moral distress could reap benefits with greater employee job satisfaction, decreased turnover, and ultimately improved patient care

Abstract: Accountability, autonomy, and choice play a leading role in recent school reforms in many countries. This report provides new evidence on whether students perform better in school systems that have such institutional measures in place. We implement an internationally comparative approach within a rigorous micro-econometric framework that accounts for the influences of a large set of student, family, school, and country characteristics. The student-level data used in the analysis comes from the PISA 2003 international student achievement test that encompasses up to 265,000 students from 37 countries. Our results reveal that different facets of accountability, autonomy, and choice are strongly associated with the level of student achievement across countries. With respect to accountability, students perform better where policies are in place that aim at students (external exit exams), teachers (monitoring of lessons), and schools (assessment-based comparisons). The combined achievement differences amount to more than one and a half PISA grade-level equivalents. Students in schools with hiring autonomy perform better on average, while they perform worse in schools with autonomy in formulating their budget. School autonomy over the budget, salaries, and course contents appears to be more beneficial when external exit exams hold schools accountable for their decisions.

Abstract: The first half of this Editorial examines the implications of the close link between morality and religion in Islamic thinking. There is no separate discipline of ethics in Islam, and the comparative importance of reason and revelation in determining moral values is open to debate. For most Muslims, what is considered halāl (permitted) and harām (forbidden) in Islam is understood in terms of what God defines as right and good. There are three main kinds of values: (a) akhlāq, which refers to the duties and responsibilities set out in the shari‘ah and in Islamic teaching generally; (b) adab, which refers to the manners associated with good breeding; and (c) the qualities of character possessed by a good Muslim, following the example of the Prophet Muhammad. Among the main differences between Islamic and western morality are the emphasis on timeless religious principles, the role of the law in enforcing morality, the different understanding of rights, the rejection of moral autonomy as a goal of moral educa...

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this study is to build on prior work to empirically test the possible effects of control‐related consumer difference variables on the decision to use self‐service technology (SSTs) in three different contexts. Specifically, the paper seeks to examine potential effects of locus of control, autonomy, self‐efficacy, technology anxiety and time pressure on the SST usage decision in a shopping, a library and a hotel situation.Design/methodology/approach – The design of the study was empirical. Data for the study came from 187 college students in classes from four different departments (business, computer science, language, and music departments) in a southern regional university.Findings – Overall, the results suggest that regardless of individual need for control and achievements, highly techno phobic consumers and those with an enduring attitude that all events in life are predestined may be generally more disposed than others to prefer check‐out service personnel rather than self‐se...

Abstract: Background Work is an aspiration for many people with intellectual disability and is regarded as a vital goal by policy-makers in pursuit of social inclusion. The aim of this study was to consider the impact of supported employment on the socio-emotional well-being of people with intellectual disabilities. Method A systematic search was conducted. The review included case-controlled and longitudinal studies measuring outcomes for: (1) quality of life (QOL), (2) social life and (3) autonomy. Results While results for QOL, well-being and autonomy were largely positive, there was a lack of perceived social acceptance. The findings are interpreted in the light of methodological strengths and weaknesses. Conclusions Implications for the socio-emotional support required by some individuals in employment, and directions for future research are discussed.

Abstract: This edited collection of papers investigates the concept of dignity and what it means to people in their working lives: how we are perceived and valued as people in the workplace. Contributors to over a century of social and organizational analysis have talked about dignity at work, but the discussion has tended to take place under headings such as citizenship, satisfaction, mutuality, pride in work, responsible autonomy and ontological security, or to focus on mismanagement, over-long hours, a poor working environment, workplace bullying and harassment as the central facilitator of indignity at work. Dignity in and at work is a far more complex phenomenon than these representations would suggest. Neither is it enough to suggest that equal opportunity, work life balance and anti-bullying policies restore dignity to work, valuable interventions though they are in themselves. The papers featured in this edited collection suggest that we see dignity reordered and experienced in different ways depending on our own circumstances and viewpoints.

Abstract: We investigated the role of motivational climates, teacher autonomy support, perceived competence and autonomy on pupils' self‐regulated motivation in physical education (PE) classes of Norwegian 10th‐graders. Path analyses revealed that a mastery climate and teacher autonomy support both (a) positively influenced intrinsically regulated motivation as measured by the relative autonomy index (RAI) and by the intrinsic motivation subdimension, and (b) negatively influenced amotivation. Perceived competence, but not perceived autonomy, significantly and partially mediated these relationships. Unmediated by perceived competence, a performance climate was found to facilitate amotivation. A mastery climate, autonomy support, perceived competence and intrinsically regulated motivation predicted enhanced levels of interest/enjoyment in PE. Intrinsically regulated motivation and perceived competence predicted after‐school physical activity. Findings suggest that blending achievement goal theory and self‐determinat...

Abstract: In this article, the authors present one of the key ethical features of research: confidentiality as maintained by nondis-closure of participants' identities. In light of (a) the contingency that certain participants might vest interest in research studies through their identity and (b) the concept of respect for participants' autonomy, the authors consider the possibilities of offering research participants the choice of nonconfidentiality, afforded as an autonomous (negative) right of refusal of nondisclosure of identity. They address the issue that this possibility generates within the context(s) of current codes of ethics related to health research and the manifest responsibilities of the institutional review process. In this way, they attempt to elucidate potential benefits and consequences that arise from confidentiality and nonconfidentiality.

Abstract: This article reviews evidence from four international student achievement tests on the effects on student performance of competition from privately managed schools, schools’ freedom to make autonomous decisions, and accountability introduced by external exit exams. The multivariate cross-country regressions are performed at the level of individual students and control for extensive family and school background information. The results reveal that students perform better in countries with more competition from privately managed schools, in countries where public funding ensures that all families can make choices, in schools that have freedom to make autonomous process and personnel decisions, where teachers have both freedom and incentives to select appropriate teaching methods, where parents take interest in teaching matters, and where school autonomy is combined with external exams that provide an information basis allowing for well-informed choices and holding schools accountable for their autonomous decisions. Copyright

Abstract: This article reviews evidence from four international student achievement tests on the effects on student performance of competition from privately managed schools, schools’ freedom to make autonomous decisions, and accountability introduced by external exit exams. The multivariate cross-country regressions are performed at the level of individual students and control for extensive family and school background information. The results reveal that students perform better in countries with more competition from privately managed schools, in countries where public funding ensures that all families can make choices, in schools that have freedom to make autonomous process and personnel decisions, where teachers have both freedom and incentives to select appropriate teaching methods, where parents take interest in teaching matters, and where school autonomy is combined with external exams that provide an information basis allowing for well-informed choices and holding schools accountable for their autonomous decisions. Copyright

Abstract: Suppose that a government wrongfully ordered the bombing of a civilian population, and suppose it was blameworthy for doing so. The question is whether it is possible that no member of the government was blameworthy or acted wrongly in the matter. More generally, the question is whether it is possible for a collective entity such as a corporation or a state to have an agential moral property even if no member of it has a relevantly corresponding agential moral property. According to the collective moral autonomy (CMA) thesis, this is possible. In this paper, I restrict myself to considering two kinds of agential moral properties, “obligation” and “responsibility.” Accordingly, for my purposes, we can view the CMA thesis as the disjunction of two claims. First is the “forwardlooking” claim (O), that it is possible for a collective to have a moral obligation to do something even if no (natural) person who is a member of that collective has a relevantly related moral obligation—an obligation, as we might say, to take part in bringing it about that the collective fulfills its obligation. Second is the “backward-looking” claim (R), that it is possible for a collective to be morally responsible for having done something (that is, to deserve a specific moral response for having done it, such as praise or blame) even if no (natural) person who is a member of that collective is morally responsible (or deserves the same kind of response) for having done something relevantly related—for having taken a part, as we might say, in bringing it about that the collective did the relevant thing. The CMA thesis might seem dubious for at least two reasons. First, it seems clear that any collective entity is, roughly, “constituted” by its members. This seems clearly to be true of unorganized or minimally organized collectives, such as mobs, discussion groups, and “arbitrary” groups, such as the passengers in an airplane. It seems also to be true of highly organized or institutionalized entities such as armies, universities, and criminal gangs. It might seem to follow that the properties of a collective must be accounted for by properties of its members. Yet even if this is so, it does not follow that a collective has a property only if at least some member has precisely that property. Some states are democracies, for example, but no person is a democracy. Second, collectives are not “independent agents”; that is, a collective can perform an action only if some person or persons act in a way that, in the circumstances, constitutes the collective’s performing that action. But, as I will explain, even if the actions of certain persons constitute an action of a collective, it does not follow that these persons must have acted

Abstract: Using data from interviews with matched couples recorded in the 2001 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey this report explores how incorporating both spouses reports of household decision-making may change the understanding of the determinants and consequences of womens autonomy. Results indicate that a substantial proportion of couples disagree about who makes household decisions but the determinants of womens autonomy are still largely similar according to both spouses reports. The assessment of the effects of two important sources of autonomy--womens education and employment--differs significantly between spouses however. When spouses agree that the wife is autonomous the association between her autonomy and her use of health-care services is found to be substantially stronger than when spouses disagree about her autonomy. This finding suggests that the association between womens autonomy and health-care-service use may be underestimated when only womens reports are considered. (authors)