Removal – or, the exile and forced migration of marginalized cultural and racial groups from one region of the British Empire and, later, the United States, to another less volatile region – emerged as a key tool in the construction of the Anglo-American Atlantic World. British officials used removal to secure the empire, ridding the realm of Catholic menaces, black insurgents, challenges to the throne and the brutal conflicts between English colonists and Native Americans. American leaders, after the conclusion of the American Revolution, viewed removal as a viable solution to the problem of slavery and the potential troubles induced by freeing the slaves. Thomas Jefferson, among other Virginians, Britons and West Indians, advocated removing all freed blacks to parts unknown. At the same time, black Masons in New England embarked on the first organized attempt to land free African-Americans in Sierra Leone in 1795/6, calling on free Africans in America to return to their native land to Christianize the continent. By 1812, Paul Cuffe advocated black emigration partly for religious reasons, but also in an effort to open new trade opportunities with West Africa. Later, the American Colonization Society – heavily supported by current and former slaveholders, high profile politicians such as Henry Clay, and moral improvement organizations – motivated some freed blacks to voluntarily go to Africa to settle Liberia. Soon, however, free blacks who formerly supported voluntary emigration began to view the idea as removal, a colonization scheme forced on them by powerful whites. Many blacks such as James Forten and Richard Allen refocused their attention on building strong, free black communities in America, while others looked to black organized and sponsored emigration to Haiti. As the Civil War erupted and the United States faced the prospect of thousands of free blacks, Abraham Lincoln's government joined the growing Haitian colonization movement, sponsoring a colony in Haiti that failed within one year. Lincoln also called for the creation of a colony in South America for newly emancipated African-Americans, revealing the extent to which removal had become a highly racialized and institutionalized ideology that went far beyond the Indian Removal Act of 1830. Indeed, removal and colonization served as a key ingredient in America's plans for territorial expansion throughout the nineteenth century. Men like Thomas Jefferson attempted to replace free blacks with immigrant white Europeans, which they believed made for a more harmonious and stable republic.

Little short of national murder: Forced migration and the making of diasporas in the Atlantic world, 1745--1865

Arlington House, located within Arlington National Cemetery and now managed by the National Park Service, was built in a three phase, sixteen-year construction sequence (1802-1818), and is considered the first American example of adapting the principles of Grecian style architecture to a domestic building. Despite its historic designation as a National Monument in 1925, the interpretation at Arlington House does not adequately portray the significance of its early history and architecture nor its contribution to the development of the nation's capital. Federal legislation requires the site interpretation to portray the period of April 1861, when its last occupants, General Robert E. Lee and his family, departed following Virginia's secession from the Union. The emphasis on Lee's tenancy overshadows the early history of Arlington House and the contributions of its owner, George Washington By providing a comprehensive historical overview of the development of Arlington House, this research is intended to: (1) outline the major factors that shaped its history to promote a broader understanding of its national significance as a historic site; and (2) promote a greater appreciation of architect George Hadfield's professional accomplishments and his contribution towards developing an American vernacular form of residential Greek Revival architecture. This paper will argue for a more broadly representative site interpretation that expands the current interpretation by placing greater emphasis on the significance of its early history and architectural design. Identifying the factors that have shaped the historical and architectural significance of Arlington House is critical in advocating for a comprehensive approach to its public site interpretation. Ultimately, this research questions the relevancy of the existing federal legislation that mandates the interpretation while advocating a policy change that seeks to incorporate a broader approach to how site interpretation is presented at house museums managed by the National Park Service.

Interpreting america’s first grecian style house: the architectural legacy of george washington parke custis and george hadfield

Papers of William Thornton. Volume One: 1781-1802.

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Papers of William Thornton. Volume One: 1781-1802.

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Citations

Little short of national murder: Forced migration and the making of diasporas in the Atlantic world, 1745--1865

Interpreting america’s first grecian style house: the architectural legacy of george washington parke custis and george hadfield

References

Little short of national murder: Forced migration and the making of diasporas in the Atlantic world, 1745--1865

Interpreting america’s first grecian style house: the architectural legacy of george washington parke custis and george hadfield