Abstract: Over the last 25 years the communicative task has emerged as a significant building block in the development of language curricula and also as an element for motivating process-oriented second language acquisition research. This paper reviews the influence of the communicative task on curriculum development and summarizes the research base for task-based language teaching. In the final part of the paper, an agenda for future research is set out.

Abstract: 1It then describes in detail six instructional features of a multidimensional teaching process: a dual-focus communicative program philosophy, learner goals, instructional objectives ,the role of the learner, the role of the teacher, and a framework of three instructional practice modes. Recent discussions of “pronunciation” 2 teaching principles have examined a number of important rationale issues including: questions of whether pronunciation should (or can) be taught and, if so, what should be taught and how; expressions of the need for more controlled studies of changes in learner pronunciation patterns as the result of specific instructional procedures; views on whether and how research in second language phonology can inform classroom practices. These and many other pertinent concerns have been ably discussed in thorough and insightful state-of-the-art papers by Leather (1983) and Pennington and Richards (1986). When it comes to classroom practice, however, as Yule (1990) has observed, it may have appeared to novice teachers that the only classroom choice available is one between teaching pronunciation as articulatory phonetics or not teaching pronunciation at all. But could this limited choice of options be more apparent than real? Clearly, on the positive side of the picture, some creative and principled contributions to alternatives have come on the scene in recent years, with a small but steady movement toward some “new looks” in pronunciation teaching. This does not mean that there are not many remaining questions about a number of issues, and more 1 The focus of this discussion is pronunciation teaching and is not intended to include a review of research in areas of second language phonology. 2 The term pronunciation means different things to different people. In this paper, I refer to a range of pronunciation teaching practices.

Abstract: This paper looks briefly at the beginnings of what has come to be known as communicative language teaching (CLT), then discusses current issues and promising avenues of inquiry. The perspective is international. CLT is seen to be not a British, European, or U.S. phenomenon, but rather an international effort to respond to the needs of present-day language learners in many different contexts of learning. Not long ago, when American structuralist linguistics and behaviorist psychology were the prevailing influences in language teaching methods and materials, second/foreign language teachers talked about communication in terms of language skills, seen to be four: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. These skill categories were widely accepted and provided a ready-made framework for methods manuals, learner course materials, and teacher education programs. They were collectively described as active skills, speaking and writing, and passive skills, reading and listening. Today, listeners and readers are no longer regarded as passive. They are seen as active participants in the negotiation of meaning. Schemata, expectancies, and top-down/bottom-up processing are among the terms now used to capture the necessarily complex, interactive nature of this negotiation. Yet full and widespread understanding of communication as negotiation has been hindered by the terms that came to replace the earlier active/passive dichotomy. The skills needed to engage in speaking and writing activities were described subsequently as productive, whereas listening and reading skills were said to be receptive. While certainly an improvement over the earlier active/passive representation, the terms productive and receptive fall short of capturing the interactive nature of communication. Lost in this productive/receptive, message sending/message receiving representation is the collaborative nature of meaning making. Meaning

Abstract: Twenty-five years ago, writing instruction was characterized by an approach that focused on linguistic and rhetorical form. Since then, we have gone into the woods in search of new approaches, focusing in turn on the writer and the writer's processes, on academic content, and on the reader's expectations. In our search for a new approach, we have come up against some thorny issues, five of which are described in detail: the topics for writing, the issue of "real" writing, the nature of the academic discourse community, contrastive rhetoric, and responding to writing. The difficulty of negotiating our way also makes us susceptible to false trails. The paper ends with a discussion of emerging traditions that reflect shared recognitions rather than provide new methodologies.

Abstract: Providing learners with grammar problems they must solve interactively integrates grammar instruction with opportunities for meaningful communication. This article reports the results of an exploratory study of the use of a communicative, grammar-based task in the college EFL classroom. The two research questions addressed are whether the task successfully promoted L2 linguistic knowledge of a specific grammar point and whether it produced the kind of negotiated interaction which has been assumed to facilitate L2 acquisition. The limited results of this investigation suggest that the grammar task encouraged communication about grammar and enabled EFL learners to increase their knowledge of a difficult L2 rule.

Abstract: To provide some perspective on current issues and challenges concerning the role of grammar in language teaching, the article reviews some methodological trends of the past 25 years. When, and to what extent, one should teach grammar to language learners is a controversial issue. The paper proposes a decision-making strategy for resolving this controversy, based on learner and instructional variables. Then taking Canale and Swain's (1980) model of communicative competence, which views grammatical competence as one component of communicative competence, the paper argues that grammar instruction is part of language teaching. In this new role, grammar interacts with meaning, social function, or discourse—or a combination of these—rather than standing alone as an autonomous system to be learned for its own sake. After addressing feedback and correction in terms of research and pedagogical techniques, the article concludes with a survey of options for integrating grammar instruction into a communicative curriculum and with a reformulation of the role of grammar in language teaching.

Abstract: After reviewing research on native language (NL) listening, the article discusses (a) the importance of listening in second language acquisition, (b) factors that influence success or failure of comprehension of first or second language messages, (c) the role of listening in the L2 curriculum, (d) posited models of NL and L2 listening comprehension, and (e) proposed taxonomies of listening skills and pedagogical activities. The essay argues that researchers and practitioners working together can foster greater understanding of L2 listening comprehension; it is hoped that such collaborations will lead to better preparation of nonnative speakers of English who must function effectively in a contemporary industrialized society that appears to be shifting increasingly toward the use of English, and simultaneously to be shifting away from literacy toward orality.

Abstract: Since its emergence some 20 years ago, the field of second language acquisition research has focused on two areas: the nature of the language acquisition process and the factors which affect language learners. Initial research was essentially descriptive. More recently, researchers have been attempting to explain how acquisition occurs and how learner factors lead to differential success among learners. The focus has alternately broadened as researchers became more aware of the complexity of the issues and narrowed as greater depth of analysis was required. The paper suggests that the next phase of research will be characterized by a union of these two focal areas: learning and the learner. It also recommends that more research attention be given to tutored acquisition. One could argue that the launching of the TESOL Quarterly 25 years ago predated the emergence of second language acquisition (SLA) research as an identifiable field. Accordingly, my task should have been easier than that of my colleagues writing for these commemorative issues of the Quarterly. This was small comfort, however, when faced with the daunting challenge of doing justice to all that has transpired since the early 1970s.' What has occurred since then, of course, is a veritable explosion of research focusing first upon the acquisition/learning process and second upon the language learner.2 This review will be organized around these two foci and around two subthemes: the alternate broadening and 1 Certainly some important studies of language learning were conducted prior to this (see, for example, some of the early studies compiled in Hatch, 1978), but these did not constitute a field of investigation as was to emerge in the 1970s. 2 It is beyond the scope of this article to treat either of these comprehensively. Interested readers may wish to consult overviews by Ellis (1985), and Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) for more detail. I have especially drawn upon the latter in writing this review. I will also be unable to deal with matters concerning research methodology in this article. Interested readers should see J. D. Brown (1988), Hatch and Lazaraton (1991), Kasper and Grotjahn (1991), and Seliger & Shohamy (1989).

Abstract: This paper reports a series of longitudinal case studies designed to address the question of how language learners build their vocabularies. Students who were enrolled in an anthropology class were asked to record the words that caused them difficulty as they read their anthropology texts, and to write down, if they could, what they thought the words meant. The resulting lists are analyzed in terms of the kinds of words listed, the accuracy of the glosses, and the probable reasons for misinterpretation; the analysis is considered in relation to data collected in protocols and a translation task. The conclusions are that a range of strategies may be used for learning vocabulary, each involving liabilities as well as assets. Students need to be aware of the range so as to develop flexibility in their responses to unfamiliar words.

Abstract: This paper presents key aspects of the whole language perspective; describes examples of whole language principles in practice in elementary, secondary, and adult ESOL programs; and reviews recent whole language research on second language development.

Abstract: This study investigates the degree to which differences exist in the writing scores of native speakers and international students at the end of their respective first-year composition courses (ESL 100 and ENG 100, in this case) Eight members each from the ESL and English faculties at the University of Hawaii at Manoa rated 112 randomly assigned compositions without knowing which type of students had written each A holistic 6-point (0-5) rating scale initially devised by the English faculty was used by all raters Raters were also asked to choose the best and worst features (from among cohesion, content, mechanics, organization, syntax, or vocabulary) of each composition as they rated it The results indicated that there were no statistically significant mean differences between native-speaker and ESL compositions or between the ratings given by the English and ESL faculties However, the features analysis showed that the ESL and English faculties may have arrived at their scores from somewhat different perspectives

Abstract: Four major themes appear to be running through ESOL teaching and research efforts at the present time: (a) In our focus on learners, we are attempting to capitalize on their intrinsic motivation to learn English as a means to their empowerment; (b) sociopolitical issues have us focused on English as an international language and on language policy issues in many countries, including the U. S.; (c) efforts are being made to make curricula more content-centered and task-based, with an emphasis on pressing global issues; (d) our methods are, in turn, increasingly oriented toward cooperative, learner-centered teaching in which learner strategy training plays a significant role.

Abstract: purpose and strategy, which certainly implies that a number of different strategies should be used in vocabulary acquisition. In this view, the question of when a learner should skip, guess, look up, etc., is largely determined by the purpose of reading. Another aspect which needs to be stressed is not only the need to read extensively but how this activity leads to acquisition, that is, the question raised by Krashen (1989). In short, from this viewpoint the reader/learner needs to be taught various metacognitive strategies which will guide the more specific strategies for vocabulary acquisition (Oxford, 1990). However, in the final analysis this is a book which should be on the reference shelf of every ESL/EFL teacher who believes that attention must be paid to vocabulary as a significant variable in language learning.

Abstract: The contention of this paper is that many activities in the communicative language teaching (CLT) classroom discourage reflection or contemplation. The first part of this paper analyzes the prominence in CLT of phenomenalistic and intuitive activities which, with their emphases on conspicuous action and spontaneous response, suggest a proclivity to a nonreflective view of language acquisition. The second part, making use of what philosophers and psychologists have concluded about reflection, examines when, how, and why a person reflects. The last part of the paper discusses three types of CLT activities which could encourage reflection: task-oriented, process-oriented, and synthesis-oriented. The conclusion is that more activities centered around reflective thinking should be incorporated in ESL/EFL classrooms to supplement the valuable phenomenally and intuitively oriented activities.

Abstract: This article is addressed to those practicing EFL/ESL teachers who currently avoid statistical studies. In particular, it is designed to provide teachers with strategies that can help them gain access to statistical studies on language learning and teaching so that they can use the information found in such articles to better serve their students. To that end, five attack strategies are advocated and discussed: (a) use the abstract to decide if the study has value for you; (b) let the conventional organization of the paper help you; (c) examine the statistical reasoning involved in the study; (d) evaluate what you have read in relation to your professional experience; and (e) learn more about statistics and research design. Each of these strategies is discussed, and examples are drawn from the article following this one in this issue of the TESOL Quarterly.

Abstract: Methods in English Language Teaching departs from the usual format of methods texts. Instead of presenting each method separately, it provides four general frameworks into which methods can be categorized. These are referred to as receptive, communicative, reconstructive, and eclectic strategies of language teaching. There is a thorough discussion of the psycholinguistic characteristics, pedagogical dimensions, learner characteristics (personality, age, and aptitude), and contextual factors (intensity of teaching, class size, level of language study, and teacher characteristics) for each strategy along with an analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of implementing each. Marton begins by defining a language teaching strategy as "a globally conceived set of pedagogical procedures imposing a definite learning strategy on the learner directly leading to the development of competence in the target language" (p. 2). By this definition, this perspective fails to recognize humanistic teaching strategies among its four categories because they do not identify specific learning strategies which develop competence in the target language. A receptive strategy, as implied by its name, has as its objective comprehension. It is based on the premise that it does not matter if linguistic competence is developed via receptive or productive activities. It is assumed that developing comprehension will also develop the potential and readiness for production skills. A communicative strategy is viewed as the replication, in the classroom, of the natural process of first language acquisition. The goal is for the learner to be able to communicate in the target language. This differs from the receptive strategy in that hypotheses about the language are formed not only by observing input but also by interpreting feedback. A communicative strategy is viewed, like first language acquisition, as creative construction.

Abstract: This paper presents the results of an empirical study of the curriculum of the TESOL methods course in the United States. The survey sample consisted of 120 teacher preparation programs. The response rate was 78%; 94 respondents returned 77 questionnaires and 55 course syllabi. These provided information about the content of the TESOL methods course, its goals, requirements, instructional materials, and common problems, and they identified possible avenues for development and change.

Abstract: We are rather raising three central questions for the profession to address, consider, and debate. No syllogisms of the sort Hoye puts forth underlie our article. Although social equality may well contribute to language learning, we are not so naive as to think that mainstreaming, in and of itself, will result in social equality. Social equality will be achieved only when all individuals share equal political and economic access. The school, along with other social institutions, plays a role in either supporting or undermining social equality. When social equality is attained, individuals and social groups will be able to select the language programs that best meet their needs. We envision our article being used in the following manner. A community would set the priorities they believe important based on the questions we raised and others. If a community were to decide that its priorities included native language development, academic achievement, and social integration, then program development would proceed with these priorities in mind. Setting priorities would encourage planners to design innovative programs responsive to community needs, rather than automatically selecting a preexisting model. Our article advocated no approach. We argued rather for a careful weighing of priorities before designing or accepting any approach to minority education.

Abstract: i As markets become increasingly global, the demand for managers with language skills and cultural sensitivity will grow. One way for the language teaching community to respond to this challenge is by redefining the goals of English for business purposes and rethinking the use of the case method. Since the early 1980s, the study of English for business purposes has attracted growing interest. Business now outranks engineering as the most popular field of study among international students in the U.S. (Zikopoulos, 1990). In the 1990s, interest in international business and economics is bound to increase with the advent of the European Community, liberalization of East European economies, and expansion of U.S. commercial ties with Asia. With these dramatic developments and the opportunities they present to the language teaching community, it is important to take a fresh look at the subdiscipline of English language teaching known as English for specific purposes (ESP) for business, or ESP-B, including a reassessment of the case method-no single theme has been more prominent in discussions of curriculum and methodology for business English. Judging by professional and commercial publications, there is widespread agreement that this method borrowed from graduate business schools is the most appropriate pedagogical model for ESP-B. The consensus on this point is so strong that two basic assumptions are seldom challenged: that the purposes of ESP-B and MBA (Master of Business Administration) programs are essentially similar and therefore the same methodology and curriculum are appropriate, and that the case method is a rigidly defined procedure requiring a specific kind of case text and discussion.

Abstract: U Institutions of higher education throughout the United States widely employ scores obtained on various tests of English language proficiency to make admission and placement decisions for minority language students. A fundamental rationale for such tests is that they predict "readiness" for college-level academic work; yet, the predictive value of these tests for ESL students has rarely been investigated and what research has been carried out has failed to produce consistently high correlations (Graham, 1987). Indeed, there is a growing concern that access to higher education for minority language students may be unduly restricted (Otheguy, 1990) because such students are repeatedly placed and kept in developmental or ESL courses while being denied access to other college courses. The purpose of this paper, then, is to examine the relation between the academic success of ESL students at a large, public, urban college, and their scores at the time of admission on basic skills tests in reading and writing (as well as math); while recognizing that such a descriptive case study can only provide fragmentary evidence gathered at one particular campus, it is nevertheless felt that this evidence is relevant to the issues discussed above-issues which are being faced by an increasing number of ethnolinguistically diverse institutions nationwide.

Abstract: This paper explores what internationalism can mean in the context of TESOL'S “strenuous” (active, determined, eager, and spirited) family. As an organization and as individual professionals, we can advocate—for peace, literacy, language rights, and education; we can work to protect multiculturalism within and outside North America; and we can network to support international goals.

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