Abstract: This paper discuses the basic managerial deficiencies of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in Sri Lanka with special reference to the SMEs in Ratnapura District The study is mainly based on primary data gathered from 57 of SMEs, which were selected from 287 SMEs using stratified random sampling method Data was gathered using a structured questionnaire and interviewing labourors, officers of various SME supportive organizations and observing SMEs The study was supplemented with the data collected from secondary sources as well Data was analyzed using qualitative and quantitative techniques The study found that even basic management functions like planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling are not properly practiced in most of the SMEs Most SMEs do not have clear plans for future development, production process, marketing, financial activities etc Owners (entrepreneurs) of most of SMEs act as managers handling all the responsibilities, which are not delegated to others Therefore, most of the SMEs do not function efficiently due to the delay of decision-making process, poor organization, poor staffing, weak controlling and directing Financial management of most of the SMEs is found to be very weak Most SMEs do not calculate total expenses, total revenue, profit etc, for they do not keep any account systematically Most SMEs do not provide any welfare facilities and retirement benefits like EPF and ETF to encourage labourers Poor production planning and production process, weak practices of marketing and poor quality of the products are the other deficiencies of SMEs Performance of many SMEs is very poor due to the deficiencies in management Poor knowledge in management of entrepreneurs causes the managerial deficiencies Therefore, SMEs cannot judge problems and barriers coming from internal and external industrial environment The paper concludes that the growth of SMEs can be accelerated by developing managerial knowledge of entrepreneurs of the SMEs

Abstract: Today commercialization of agriculture is an inevitable reality throughout the whole world. There are a number of factors affecting the commercialization process in agriculture. Some of them could be named as rapid growth of economies in the both developing and developed countries, introducing of new technologies, market expansion, market liberalization, urbanization, rapid increase of demand for food, decreasing of farming population, liberalized and open economic policies, bilateral and multilateral economic agreements, developed infrastructure facilities in farming areas and government agricultural policies. However, commercialization in agriculture is not a new phenomenon and it is not a surprise to the farming community. Since the nineteen fifties, farmers in most of the countries have moved towards commercial agriculture. Their major objective was surplus production aiming market prospects. Agricultural extension plays a major role in agricultural production. Role of agricultural extension in a commercialized agricultural system is different from such service in subsistence farming system. In the commercialized agriculture the extension service will mainly concentrate on the resourceful big farmers, with favorable environmental conditions and higher socio-economic status. Under the commercialized agriculture the number of farmers is to be reduced and the size of the farm land should be increased. This is a generally accepted concept in commercial agriculture. Do we have to accept this concept under each and every situation? We think the answer is "no". By using improved technologies farmers can move towards commercial agriculture without considering the size of land. Under protected agriculture, farmers follow concepts of the commercial agriculture. Commercial livestock farming does not rely on the farm size except diary farming. However, the role of agricultural extension in the commercialized agricultural system is mainly dependent on the type and way of commercialization in a given society. We have to expect that agricultural extension services are supposed to fulfill many aims, from reducing rural poverty and improved livelihoods for rural households to increasing the overall production and contributing to foreign exchange earnings from exports. But the level and percentage of this contribution may vary from one situation to another. DOI: 10.4038/suslj.v6i1.1686 Sabaragamuwa University Journal , vol 6, no. 1, pp 13-22

Abstract: Similar to many developing countries, pesticide related issues in Sri Lanka have become a major concern in the recent past. Many researches were conducted to evolve technical alternatives for eco-friendly agriculture, but very less emphasis was given to the knowledge and behaviour of the farmers. Having recognized the need, present study was conducted to assess the farmers' knowledge level on pest management practices and socio-economic factors influencing the existing pest management practices. Ordered Probit model was used to analyze the data from 50 vegetable farmers who were randomly selected from Pampaimadu, Agricultural Instructor range in the Vavuniya district. Nearly 60% of the farmers had medium level of knowledge of plant protection practices. Only 6% of the farmers had good level of knowledge towards the recommended plant protection measures. Almost all the farmers depended on chemical pesticides for the management of pest and diseases but at 35% higher concentration than recommended level. Farming experience and social participation were positive and significantly contributed to farmers' knowledge on safe pesticide use. Education, income, age and family size of farmers had showed no relationship with the knowledge level of pest management. Increased social participation and, effective extension programmes are important to improve farmers' knowledge on proper use of pesticides and its effect on their health and environment. Key Words: Farmers Pest Management Knowledge; Ordered Probit Model DOI: 10.4038/suslj.v8i1.1852 Sabaramuwa University Journal Vol. 8(1); December 2008, pp 79-89

Abstract: This paper reviews the knowledge contributions of previous studies in the area of marriages and family life. The endeavor was to examine the extent of the knowledge contributions on this study area and to highlight possible research direction in line with the marriage and family life satisfaction. The review was done chronologically based on empirical and critical reviews of marriage patterns and family life. The review of empirical studies of marriage patterns and family life studies was done in two aspects: studies in Sri Lankan context and foreign context. According to the review it seemed that there is a research gap in the area of studying marriage patterns and their effects on family life satisfaction. In Sri Lankan context no any study could be found, on marriage and its effects on family life satisfaction. Because of this rationale, the review considered marriage as a major study phenomenon, which has a significant influence on the family life satisfaction and endeavored to provide a base for an empirical study on marriage and family life satisfaction in Sri Lankan context. Keywords: Marriage patterns; Family life satisfaction; Marital Quality; Cohabitation DOI: 10.4038/suslj.v8i1.1847 Sabaramuwa University Journal Vol. 8(1); December 2008, pp 1-17

Abstract: This article examines the present situation of regional dimensions of development of Sri Lanka. In this respect, this study was carried out by employing several indicators of development. It can be clearly observed that, development strategies implemented by Sri Lanka within the past fifty years have not successfully contributed to reduce the socioeconomic disparities in Sri Lanka. Economic development, physical and social infrastructure facilities and urban growth etc. have distributed unevenly among nine provinces since1950s. The most functionally dynamic core region in the country lies in Western Province and most of the economic activities take place within this region. As a result, most of the other areas have become economically backward. Therefore, unequal development of regions called "provinces" is a problem throughout the history of Sri Lanka. Key Words - Development, Regional Dimensions; Regional Disparities; Regional Development DOI: 10.4038/suslj.v7i1.1841 Sabaragamuwa University Journal vol. 07 no.1, 2007 pp 22-36

Abstract: This paper presents findings of a study on the barriers faced by small farmers in adopting the integrated plant nutrient system (IPNS) for sustainable farming development. The study was conducted in 3 villages in the central sub-district of Narail, in Bangladesh. Data were collected through interviews with 110, randomly selected farmers. The majority were found to use plant nutrient sources either inadequately or only moderately. Manure was found to be used much less frequently than fertilizers, even though in the past it was the main source of soil nutrients for farmers in the region. The results indicate that more than three quarters of the farmers questioned confronted moderate barriers in adopting IPNS, while 20% faced severe barriers. In addition the barriers faced were found to be inversely proportional to the farmers' education level, farm size, innovativeness, extension contact network, knowledge of the IPNS technique and the perceived benefits of using manure. Key words: Farmer; barrier; IPNS; sustainable agriculture; Bangladesh. DOI: 10.4038/suslj.v7i1.1840 Sabaragamuwa University Journal vol. 07 no.1, 2007 pp 3-21

Abstract: Microenterprise activities could be considered as one of the best solutions for poor people to realize their potentials and to improve their economic status. However, access to credit is a critical issue that influences the development of microenterprises. The Credit Delivery System (CDS) varies among different lenders and there are differences in terms and conditions of the loans as well as in lender's and borrower's transactions costs. Therefore, this study was conducted to analyze the lending by public and private micro-financial institutions to micro-enterprises in the Nuwara Eliya Divisional Secretariat. Based on the level of involvement, the Samurdhi Development Bank and Ceylinco Grameen Credit Company Limited were selected to represent the public and private sector. Ninety microenterprise owners who have borrowed from these two sources were selected randomly. Primary data were collected through a pre-tested questionnaire. Analysis revealed that the Ceylinco Grameen Credit Company Limited has a low transaction cost than the Samurdhi Bank; however it charges a higher interest rate and this leads to a higher gross unit cost of borrowing. Findings suggest that the transaction cost of borrowing declines as the size of loan increases. Transaction cost of borrowing increases due to high travel cost and opportunity cost of borrowing. Closer proximity to the borrower, regular inspection of microenterprises by the lending staff, timeliness in loan approval and disbursement have built a strong relationship with the Ceylinco Grameen Credit Company Limited. Incorporation of these factors into the Samurdhi Bank CDS could reduce the borrower's transactions cost. Key words : Micro-Financial Institutions; Credit Delivery System; Transactions Costs; Microenterprises DOI: 10.4038/suslj.v7i1.1846 Sabaragamuwa University Journal vol. 07 no.1, 2007 pp 86-100

Abstract: The effect of feeding velvet bean ( Mucuna pruriens ) meal on the lipid profile in broilers was investigated. Two hundred, 14 days old broiler chicks were randomly allocated to five dietary treatments in a completely randomized design and feeding continued for four weeks. Maize and soybean meal based control feed and four test diets prepared from the control feed by incorporating velvet beans at 10, 15, 20 and 25% levels served as five dietary treatments. Feed intake was unaffected by velvet beans. Serum total cholesterol level was lowered by 9.5, 9.7, 15 and 16% in birds fed with 10, 15, 20 and 25% velvet bean diets. Birds fed 25% VB diet showed an increase in HDL level by 8%. LDL level was lowered by 43.1, 36.5, 25 and 23.4%, respectively in birds fed with 25, 20, 15 and 10% velvet beans. Velvet beans reduced the serum triglyceride levels. Results suggest that Velvet beans contain a strong cholesterol lowering effect in broilers. Key words: Velvet beans; broilers; cholesterol DOI: 10.4038/suslj.v7i1.1845 Sabaragamuwa University Journal vol. 07 no.1, 2007 pp 78-85

Abstract: This paper attempts to discuss the reasons for the improvement of labor productivity after the privatization. This study mainly based on the primary data gathered from the laborers employed in tea estates in the Ratnapura district in Sri Lanka. 120 of laborers are selected representing 40 laborers from 03 privatized estates situated in the Ratnapura District. Data was mainly collected through a structured questionnaire and analyzed qualitatively and quantitative techniques. The study reveals that the financial benefits i.e. salary, allowances, salary increments, overtime and loan facilities and non-financial facilitieswelfare facilities like housing, education, health, daycare centers, transport, electricity etc. provided by the management company for laborers are highly affected to the improvement of labor productivity through the increase of labor satisfaction. Labor satisfaction regarding financial and non-financial benefits was relatively very high. On the other hand, strict management and application of new technology for the factories affect the improvement of labor productivity. Finally, it can be concluded that the labor productivity in tea plantation sector has improved after privatization due to the improvement of labor satisfaction, strict management and application of new techniques of the private companies. Key Words : Labor productivity; Privatization; Financial benefits; Non-financial facilities; Labor satisfaction. DOI: 10.4038/suslj.v7i1.1842 Sabaragamuwa University Journal vol. 07 no.1, 2007 pp 37-47

Abstract: The Eastern Sinharaja is a moist montane tropical forest that falls within the Rakwana mountain range and is 30km 2 in area. Eastern Sinharaja is the home for many threatened endemic herpetofauna where seven species of anuran amphibians three agamids, one species of gecko are known to be spot endemics where all of them are considered to be critically endangered. The eastern Sinharaja is confronting different degrees of threats due to human disturbances including deforestation and habitat destruction due to cardamom and tea cultivation, the land degradation as a result of Illegal gem mining, extraction of forest resources, illicit timber felling, collection of non-woody products, wild cardamom, medicinal plants and firewood, setting fire to the forest and grasslands and the excessive usage of pesticides in plantations. The relative abundances of the above mentioned endemic herpetofauna is significantly low. Therefore it is assumed that the population size of these species is extremely low. Having a small land area, where the primary forest vegetation is rapidly declining, the herpetofaual populations are facing an imminent threat. Therefore, immediate conservation actions are recommended. Specific attention must be paid over restoration of regarded areas with native fast growing forest species and establishment of habitat corridors to bridge the neighboring forest patches to yield space and resources to sustain the minimum viable populations. Establishment of a buffer is imperative to mediate the human impacts. The landowners must be encouraged to adopt agro-forestry practices instead of monocultures like tea/cardamom plantation, allowing establishment of small populations of herpatofauna in those agroforestry plots adjoining the reserve. DOI: 10.4038/suslj.v6i1.1685 Sabaragamuwa University Journal , vol 6, no. 1, pp 3-12

Abstract: Most countries in the world have gained economic advantages through tourism. They have implemented plans systematically for both domestic and international tourism sectors. In the recent world developed and developing countries have been taking more economic contribution from domestic tourism rather than from international tourism. Tourism industry in Sri Lanka is giving special attention to international tourism, but less attention to domestic tourism. The main objective of the study is to identify the recent salient features of the domestic tourism sector, analyzing the income expenditure patterns and the examining the possibility of introducing the tour package to the study area. The sample covers primary data from 200 domestic tourists and 100 related enterprises. The data analysis using simple regression analysis and it shows domestic tourists expenditure pattern has been change with formalizing the sector. In addition regional development, employment creation and income generation in the area was tremendously increased. Key words: Tourism; income; expenditure; regional development DOI: 10.4038/suslj.v8i1.1849 Sabaramuwa University Journal Vol. 8(1); December 2008, pp 33-48

Abstract: Based on a sub set of data from a study which investigated the role of motivation as a contributing factor in second language learning in a disadvantaged school setting in Sri Lanka, this paper attempts to show the relationship between a ‘culture of poverty’ and learning. Lewis, (1970 : p.85) states that ‘in addition to being a condition of chronic economic poverty, the culture of poverty is characterized by the cognitive poverty of its ‘members’, instilling a fatalism with reference to any possibility of ever achieving a different way of life’. Although education is one way in which such people could be empowered to develop a sense of self confidence and self worth, children acquire the adult fatalism early and become learned helpless. The findings of the study indicate that there is a correlation between motivation and a ‘culture of poverty’. Further, in spite of the adverse socio-economic backgrounds from which the students come, their motivation to learn the second language can be enhanced. However, it is not the ‘culture of poverty’ per se that affects motivation but the type of attributions that the students make regarding their prior learning experiences. Thus a relationship between attributions and ‘cognitive poverty’ was visible.

Abstract: Today, educators are faced with the challenge of addressing the needs of the growing number of students whose primary language is not English. While mastering other skills and content in other subject areas, there is the necessity for these learners to gain proficiency in English. Teaching English as a second language to all Sri Lankan school children irrespective of their social, economical or geographical background has been a major educational policy of successive governments in Sri Lanka since the early 1950s. This continues to be the declared government educational policy as in recent years more than ever, the country's need for English-speaking citizens has come to be realized. Teaching of English at the Advanced Level is considered an appropriate means of achieving the goals to equip them with the necessary knowledge and technical skills required for the modern employment market. The results of this cross sectional survey analyses the attitudes of students to the GCE AL General English course in four state schools. This paper further attempts to develop a model for building a direct relationship between student aspirations and English studies in order to achieve greater relevance in the GCE AL General English programme.The findings made in this study regarding the attitudes of students to General English in the Balangoda Educational Zone may provide useful insights for improving educational policy with regard to English education, as well as the quality of the English course offered by schools. Key words: Second Language; Teaching; General Education DOI: 10.4038/suslj.v8i1.1848 Sabaramuwa University Journal Vol. 8(1); December 2008, pp 19-31

Abstract: Seafood exporting enterprises have to produce to the requirements of their international markets and demonstrate acceptable conformity to food safety regulations. The basic purpose of this study was to investigate the present status of food safety programmes (HACCP) in seafood business in Sri Lanka and determine the food safety practices and procedures related to the HACCP. The principle focus was to find out the impact of HACCP, level of sanitation, labor, capital and traceability on export penetration of the seafood export business in Sri Lanka. A structured questionnaire was used to collect the primary data from purposely selected seafood processing establishments in Sri Lanka (n=50). An analysis showed that 72% of the export penetration was described by the selected dependent variables. Moreover, findings highlighted that the level of HACCP observance, labor, capital, sanitation (SANI 1) and traceability have positive correlation with export penetration while poor sanitation (SANI 2) has a negative impact on export penetration. Key words: seafood; exports of Sri Lanka; HACCP; compliance DOI: 10.4038/suslj.v8i1.1851 Sabaramuwa University Journal Vol. 8(1); December 2008, pp 61-77

Abstract: This paper discusses how new and emerging wireless technologies could be deployed together with Open Source product lines in expediting the propagation of the ICT know-how in the rural as well as the suburban areas of Sri Lanka. The intention of the authors is to showcase a blueprint for using newer and emerging viable communication technologies in the rural context. Current internet distribution networks generally rely on a permanent, fixed and largely wired infrastructure that is owned and often operated by large entities such as telecom operators or an Internet Service Provider. A relatively new and emerging technology is wireless Ethernet or wireless networking using the IEEE 802.11 standard. This standard encompasses the lower layers of the OSI model for transport of data as Ethernet frames using a spread spectrum based radio link. This technology opens the possibility of building a network without having the problems associated with, and the cost of putting some sort of physical transmission medium in the ground. Instead, antennas can be used to send and receive data using radio waves through free air. Due to the relative simplicity of the currently available commodity hardware that uses IEEE 802.11 technology it is relatively easy to build a local wireless community network in a community township. Using this network people can share resources among each other and, more importantly, it would facilitate the adaptation of a highly collaborative environment forgoing the language barriers, which is regarded as a major cause of the ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka.

Abstract: Due to increasing use of land surveying practices along with technology advancements, a necessity for appropriate tools for task accomplishment has been occurred. A computer application program has been developed to make land surveying applications into a single user-friendly desktop operation to reduce the complexity of the surveying work. In the developed software (SCAD2006) the processing in outline and by the nature of snapshot provides a static view of activities. SCAD2006 acts as a bridge between raw data and digital maps because it provides required tools for digitalization. It benefits professional land surveyors in developing countries for efficient completion of mapping tasks. The pilot study revealed that 52% of Sri Lankan land surveyors are currently using this software, which indicates the practicability of it within a short period of time. DOI: 10.4038/suslj.v7i1.1843 Sabaragamuwa University Journal vol. 07 no.1, 2007 pp 48-63

Abstract: Many organizations in Sri Lanka have been involved in spatial data collection and distribution. However, most of the local authorities have not been using the available spatial data optimally. This can be identified as one of the major reasons contributing to poor performance of the local authorities in the country. The major functions of local authorities fall within the categories of public health and environmental sanitation, public thoroughfare and public utilities. But, at present, the effectiveness and efficiency of local authorities operating under these fields are not up to the expected level. Problems/constraints that come up regarding the usage of Geo-information within the local authorities are one of the identified reasons for the inefficiency and the non-effectiveness. It also has major implications on the current operational practices within the local authorities. This paper discusses this issue in detail by considering Ratnapura Municipality as a case study. The data was collected by using questionnaires, interviews, physical observations and available supported documents. Data analysis aims to identify Geo-information providers related to the Ratnapura Municipality and District Planning Office and compare the requirements, perceptions and activities in acquiring Geo-information between the above two organizations. Comparison between these two administrative levels will help to identify the improvement strategies to utilize Geo-information within the Municipality. This analysis utilizes a technique of Strategic Grids, including grids with Interest vs. Awareness. Such grids identify the improvement strategies for effective and efficient process of Geo-information exchange, targeting to improve present Geo-information usage in the Ratnapura municipality. Major findings can be summarized as: (a) lack of the required capacity of the municipality to cope with Geo-information related work; (b) lack of motivation of the municipality staff from the management level for Geo-information related activities. This situation has been further aggravated due to the lack of an effective linkage between the major Geoinformation providers and the municipality. Key Words: Geo-information Management; Capacity Building; Local Authorities; Disaster Mitigation DOI: 10.4038/suslj.v8i1.1850 Sabaramuwa University Journal Vol. 8(1); December 2008, pp 49-60

Abstract: Paul Scott's second novel, The Alien Sky , foreshadows the interest with the subject of Indian independence that dominates his final great achievement, The Raj Quartet . Though in this single novel Scott's obvious concern is the British reaction to independence, I believe in his presentation of his characters he also explores some of the moral concepts relating to colonialism and independence that he analyses so illuminatingly in the Quartet. In particular he shows how elements in the individual human psyche contribute to actions and reactions within relationships based on power, which are the dominant feature of the imperial situation. One of Scott's principle themes is that, because of the power factor, even for the most idealistic of those within the system there were boundaries that could not be crossed. While Scott exposes then those who have no qualms about abusing their power, I suggest that he reserves his sharpest criticism for those who fail to live up to their expressed ideals because of their reliance on the system with which in the end they must show solidarity. DOI: 10.4038/suslj.v6i1.1688 Sabaragamuwa University Journal , vol 6, no. 1, pp 35-49

Abstract: This paper evaluates the company performance using the CAPM Based Jensen's Alpha. The CAPM of Sharpe (1964), Lintner (1965) and Mossin is a widely used model in modern Finance to estimate cost of equity and company performance. We carried out our study for ten plantation companies listed on Colombo Stock Exchange (CSE). We used cost of equity that is calculated using CAPM to determine the Economic Value Added (EVA).The EVA measures whether the companies have created shareholders' value during the estimating period. We selected the sample period of 2000 to 2005 years and we applied the monthly ending prices of common stocks of each company for the regression. The monthly ending prices of All Share Price Index (ASPI) are used as the market proxy. To estimate the beta, we applied market model. It was found that almost all the companies have created value for their shareholders during the study period. To measure the market performance, we calculated Jensen's alpha for each company and according to Jensen's alpha we found that the market performance is not satisfactory in most plantation companies. These results are important for Corporate Managers undertaking risk calculations, for fund managers making investment decision and, amongst others, for investors who wish to assess value of their investments. DOI: 10.4038/suslj.v6i1.1690 Sabaragamuwa University Journal , vol 6, no. 1, pp 68-81

Abstract: Existing literature reveals a gap in the empirical knowledge in respect of organizational factors that impact perceived job performance (PJP) at the large scale garment industries. The present study empirically evaluated four organizational factors that could have impact on the perceived job performance namely Leadership Style, Organization Structure, Organization Culture and Performance Evaluation. The study involved 236 shop floor employees who were selected randomly from 12 large scale garment factories in each province except North and North East provinces in Sri Lanka. Methods such as univariate, bivariate, regression and hypothesis testing were used for data analysis. The results indicated that all the independent variables were positively and significantly correlated to the perceived job performance. However, results regressing the independent variables on the perceived job performance showed that Leadership style, Organization Structure and Performance Evaluation are strong predictors of perceived job performance while organization culture variable is excluded from the model. On the whole, the independent variables accounted for almost 36% of the variance in the perceived job performance.

Abstract: This paper presents an overview and guidance for manufacturing companies which are preparing to invest in Advanced Manufacturing Technology (AMT). The purpose of this paper is to introduce AMT to Local context and explain the reasons why the company may encounter problems with adopting AMT. In addition to that, the author suggests many avenues to look at AMT applications and the many suggestions offered by the relevant literature for improving the performance of using AMT investment. Further, the research work here aims to assist managers to understand the benefits, types and investment of AMT and identify the problems in the local context. The author of this paper believes that proper understanding of AMT will encourage more firms to invest in AMT and to realize the benefits to make more contributions to society by improving world standard quality of product. DOI: 10.4038/suslj.v6i1.1694 Sabaragamuwa University Journal , vol 6, no. 1, pp 116-134