Abstract: This book contributes to growing efforts to examine human behaviour in order to better address environmental issues. It covers extensive theoretical and practical ground and, in doing so, challenges the common assumption that rational arguments and incentives offer an effective means to change behaviour. The guide is highly accessible to professionals, scientists, students and citizens alike and contains a diversity of ideas to facilitate more thoughtful action. That said, access to these insights requires deep engagement, an open mind and recognition of what this book is missing—broader social science theories related to power, politics and systemic change, and attention to contradictions among theories. The book’s design facilitates piecemeal engagement for the busy reader, but the danger is that people simply cherry-pick theories to solve predefined problems (e.g. to spread my idea better I will use diffusion theory). This risks further legitimizing the problematic expert role of the few to devise solutions for the many, which would ironically contradict many theories in this book!This book’s real value lies in its potential to help people question their own assumptions so as to exploremore collaborativeways of framing problems and solutions. Part I provides an overview of some cognitive biases and limitations that cause people to think they are much better at predicting and explaining behaviour than they actually are. This serves as a dose of humility in preparation for Part II—The Theories—which provides a concise summary of  explanatory theories and practical examples of their use, across five chapters/themes. An overview table in Chapter  matches these theories to potential real world uses, such as communication, negotiation and governance. Chapter  presents nine theories to explain how values, beliefs and norms shape people’s behaviour, to inform more persuasive messages and approaches. Yet, Chapter  shows how simply providing people with rational reasons to change, and incentives, is unlikely to work. The theories illuminate the intuitive processes that often affirm identities and inhibit learning. This reveals potential strategies for questioning assumptions, breaking down polarized conflict and fostering mutual empathy and trust. Chapter  then explores theories that help navigate among diverse people and ideas to develop and pursue shared goals. This chapter makes a compelling case that collaborative efforts are more sustainable in the long-term and thus worth the hard work of negotiation and compromise. Chapter  explores theories that can help organizations pursue their goals more effectively by enhancing intrinsic motivation and team performance, and managing project risk and competing accountabilities. It is argued that leaders are most effective at inspiring action and long-term commitment when they are seen as legitimate, trustworthy and competent, and encourage open questioning. This chapter also explores approaches to organizational learning; however, mostly in pursuit of predefined goals. This is a key shortcoming of this chapter, as it fails to offer tangible strategies for learning in ways that question initial goals. Broader social science work highlights the historical failure of dominant approaches to environmental governance (e.g. David Harvey, James Scott), and demonstrates the problematic ways organizations often manage to mobilize notions of success and expertise to reinforce their legitimacy and constrain meaningful learning (e.g. Thomas Kuhn, Bram Büscher). Chapter  introduces systems theories to inform adaptive social-ecological governance but this promise is not fulfilled because system is defined innarrow terms.The theories focusmainly on the local scale and seek to further strategies/ impacts, regardless of what they are. Again, this disregards broader social science work that shows how solutions paradoxically spread well when they allow those in power to accumulate power, often at the expense of sustainability and equitability outcomes. The recurring emphasis on meeting the basic needs of local people to make way for moral values (Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs) also shifts blame for widespread injustices towards marginalized actors and away from elite actors. Part III offers a series of vignettes that show how people can use these theories to address problems, such as resisting development pressures, shifting to more collaborative management and reducing corporate consumption and costs. It closes with a series of key principles. I commend this part for making the diverse theories presented highly accessible and tangible. However, the examples highlighted primarily emphasize how to solve a given problem rather than question the framing of the problem. This reflects the general tendency of this book to understand people’s existing values, beliefs and motivations to enact power over them. This overlooks the more complex forms of power that constructed those identities in the first place and actively hides contradictions (e.g. see discourse, governmentality and hegemony theories). Chapters – offer the most valuable insights that, alongside broader social science theories, may help identify opportunities for more powerful systemic change. In summary, this book is a commendable effort that deserves attention but I hope that this review can guide people to extend their learning beyond it.

Abstract: Rural communities in developing countries extract provisioning ecosystem services from the natural environment to meet their subsistence needs, generate cash income and create employment opportunities. Caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis, known as yartsagunbu in Tibet and in the literature on this subject, is a medicinal resource extracted by the mountain communities of the Himalaya. Studies of the contribution of the fungus to local livelihoods in the Indian Himalaya are scarce. We investigated trade and harvest and analysed the contribution of caterpillar fungus to household economies in 32 villages in Dhauliganga Valley, Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, in the Western Himalaya. Caterpillar fungus harvesting has become an integral part of local livelihoods in the study area, and on average contributes c. 74% of household cash income. The majority of harvesters perceived that harvesting had become more difficult during 2010–2015 as a result of competition and a decline in abundance of the species. The mean annual per capita harvest declined by 54 pieces during 2011–2015. Increasing harvesting and trade, coupled with the dependency of local communities on the fungus, may result in greater extraction of the resource for short-term economic benefits, and could eventually lead to depletion and ecological damage. Harvesting of the fungus has already created environmental, legal and social challenges, although it has become a lucrative livelihood opportunity. The ongoing decline of the fungus threatens local livelihoods. Good governance and livelihood security should be integrated with biodiversity conservation when devising government policies and plans for sustainable management of the caterpillar fungus.

Abstract: An assessment of management effectiveness was carried out for all the protected areas in the Kingdom of Bhutan. During 2014-2016 the Royal Government of Bhutan developed a custom-made tool for assessing management effectiveness: the Bhutan Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool Plus (Bhutan METT +). This was implemented in Bhutan's 10 protected areas and one botanical park, and the results were verified through field trips and expert reviews. The assessment indicates that protected areas in Bhutan are well managed and there are generally good relationships with local communities, despite an increase in livestock predation and crop damage. However, effectiveness is limited by a low level of resources (both financial and appropriate technical resources) and by gaps in monitoring and research data, which limits the ability to understand the impact of conservation, react to changing conditions and undertake adaptive management to improve efficiency and effectiveness. Bhutan is in the midst of mobilizing considerable conservation funding. The Government is working in partnership with WWF to create an innovative funding mechanism for the protected area system: the Bhutan for Life initiative. The Bhutan METT + study provides an example of how to develop a baseline against which to measure the effectiveness of protected areas over time and assess the impact of conservation inputs.

Abstract: Non-lethal mitigation of crop use by elephants Loxodonta africana is an increasingly important part of protected area management across Africa and Asia. Recently, beehive fences have been suggested as a potential mitigation strategy. We tested the effectiveness of this method in a farming community adjacent to Udzungwa Mountains National Park in southern Tanzania. Over a 5.5-year period (2010–2016) a beehive fence was introduced and subsequently extended along the Park boundary. The probability that one or more farms experienced crop loss from elephants on a given day was reduced in the presence of the fence and was reduced further as the fence was extended. The number of hives occupied by bees along the fence was the best predictor of elephants’ visits to farms. Farms closest to the fence experienced a greater likelihood of damage, particularly during the initial period when the fence was shorter. The number of farms affected by elephants declined when the fence was extended. There was a higher probability of damage on farms that were closer to the Park boundary and further from a road. Our mixed results suggest that the shape, length and location of fences need to be carefully planned because changes in a farm’s long-term susceptibility to elephant damage vary between individual farms; fences need to be long enough to be effective and ensure that decreasing crop loss frequency is not outweighed by an increasing number of farms damaged per visit.

Abstract: The Vulnerable snow leopard Panthera uncia experiences persecution across its habitat in Central Asia, particularly from herders because of livestock losses. Given the popularity of snow leopards worldwide, transferring some of the value attributed by the international community to these predators may secure funds and support for their conservation. We administered contingent valuation surveys to 406 international visitors to the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal, between May and June 2014, to determine their willingness to pay a fee to support the implementation of a Snow Leopard Conservation Action Plan. Of the 49% of visitors who stated they would pay a snow leopard conservation fee in addition to the existing entry fee, the mean amount that they were willing to pay was USD 59 per trip. The logit regression model showed that the bid amount, the level of support for implementing the Action Plan, and the number of days spent in the Conservation Area were significant predictors of visitors’ willingness to pay. The main reasons stated by visitors for their willingness to pay were a desire to protect the environment and an affordable fee. A major reason for visitors’ unwillingness to pay was that the proposed conservation fee was too expensive for them. This study represents the first application of economic valuation to snow leopards, and is relevant to the conservation of threatened species in the Annapurna Conservation Area and elsewhere.

Abstract: Forest ecosystems are rich in biodiversity and provide valuable ecosystem services, but are declining worldwide. Malus niedzwetzkyana, an Endangered wild relative of domesticated apples, is an important component of the walnut–fruit forests of Central Asia. Its iconic pink blossom and genetic properties give it special cultural and scientific significance, but livestock grazing and firewood collection threaten its survival. The conservation of the species and its native forest ecosystem is critical and urgent. This study provides information on the ecology and population of M. niedzwetzkyana and the threats affecting its habitat, improving our understanding of its distribution and proposing measures to reduce threats. We collected ecological data and assessed population structure and threats at four forest sites in southern Kyrgyzstan. We mapped 149 individuals, creating the largest known dataset for this species. We developed species distribution models for M. niedzwetzkyana to identify climatically suitable regions and potential areas for restoration. Sary-Chelek Biosphere Reserve contained the largest expanse of pristine forest and the most stable M. niedzwetzkyana population, followed by Kara-Alma Forestry Unit. Forests in the Gava Forestry Unit and Dashman Reserve were most extensively damaged by humans and livestock. The wild apple's favoured habitat was south-west facing slopes with a gradient < 30° and a relatively open canopy. Overall, the study population was vulnerable to extinction with limited regeneration potential. We recommend short-term population enhancement through planting projects and increased protection of individuals in pristine sites. Community-based conservation initiatives should be prioritized in extensively damaged sites, and larger-scale reforestation of these forests needs to be considered.

Abstract: Ostional in Costa Rica is the second largest nesting site of the olive ridley sea turtle Lepidochelys olivacea, which is categorized as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. In Ostional the local community helps maintain the nesting site and collects olive ridley eggs for consumption and trade within Costa Rica. Since its inception in 1987 the egg harvesting project has integrated sea turtle conservation with community development. We assessed the current status of this project in terms of community awareness, dependency, involvement and perceptions, using a household survey and semi-structured interviews with key informants. We also compared some of our findings with those of previous studies at the site, finding that the project has fewer dependents, primary livelihood activities have shifted towards tourism and hospitality, and respondents are more aware about environmental conservation and stewardship. We map outcomes of the project with the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework, and suggest that further capacity building for research and tourism could contribute towards sustaining the turtle population, local livelihoods, and the community-based conservation institution.

Abstract: Across Africa the majority of giraffe species and subspecies are in decline, whereas the South African giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis giraffa remains numerous and widespread throughout southern Africa. By 2013 the number of giraffes in South Africa's Kruger National Park had increased by c. 150% compared to 1979 estimates. An even greater increase occurred on many of the estimated 12,000 privately owned game ranches, indicating that private ownership can help to conserve this subspecies. The estimated total population size in South Africa is 21,053–26,919. The challenge now is to implement monitoring and surveillance of G. camelopardalis giraffa as a conservation priority and to introduce sustainable practices among private owners to increase numbers and genetic variation within in-country subspecies.

Abstract: Identifying optimal sampling designs for detecting population-level declines is critical for optimizing expenditures by research and monitoring programmes The Tropical Ecology Assessment and Monitoring (TEAM) network is the most extensive tropical camera-trap monitoring programme, but the effectiveness of its sampling protocol has not been rigorously assessed Here, we assess the power and sensitivity of the programme's camera-trap monitoring protocol for detecting occupancy changes in unmarked populations using the freely available application PowerSensor! We found that the protocol is well suited to detect moderate (≥ 5%) population changes within 3–4 years for relatively common species that have medium to high detection probabilities (ie p > 02) The TEAM protocol cannot, however, detect typical changes in rare and evasive species, a category into which many tropical species and many species of conservation concern fall Additional research is needed to build occupancy models for detecting change in rare and elusive species when individuals are unmarked

Abstract: With an increase in poaching of elephants (Loxodonta africana) across Africa, it is vital to know exactly how many elephants remain and where they occur, to ensure that protection and management are planned appropriately. From a nationwide survey, we provide current population and distribution data for elephants in South Africa. We consider the viability of elephant populations in the country, as well as some of the management techniques implemented and how effective these are in controlling elephant numbers. According to our surveys, there were 28,168 elephants in South Africa as of December 2015, with 78% of these occurring in the Kruger National Park (KNP) and reserves bordering and open to the Park. Of the country’s 78 discrete that host elephants, 77% have populations of <100 elephants, which could mean they are not genetically viable. We discuss our findings in terms of the conservation value of South Africa’s elephant reserves, and the animal welfare implications. We recommend that the current fragmentation of elephant habitat in the country be addressed through a national elephant management strategy that promotes wildlife corridors between existing, neighbouring elephant reserves.

Abstract: Invertebrates living in underground environments often have unusual and sometimes unique adaptations and occupy narrow ranges, but there is a lack of knowledge about most micro-endemic cave-dwelling invertebrate species. An illustrative case is that of the flatworm Dendrocoelum italicum, the first survey of which was performed 79 years after its description. The survey revealed that the underground stream supplying water to the pool from which the species was first described had been diverted into a pipe for human use, thus severely reducing the available habitat for the species. Here we describe the results of what we believe is the first habitat restoration action performed in a cave habitat for the conservation of a flatworm. The water-diverting structure was removed, with the involvement of local protected area administrators, citizens and volunteers from local organizations. The intervention resulted in the restoration of a large, stable pool inside the cave, thus creating an optimal habitat for this threatened planarian, with increased availability of prey and a stable population. This report of habitat restoration for a neglected invertebrate offers insights for the protection of other micro-endemic species.

Abstract: Biological surveys starting in the 1950s provided clear evidence that the Itombwe Massif, located in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, is one of the most important areas for conservation in Africa. Further surveys in the mid 1990s and early 2000s showed key species were still present and could be conserved. Following a report on these surveys the Ministry of Environment established the Itombwe Reserve in 2006 without consulting local communities who have legitimate customary rights to reside within the area and use the region's natural resources. Although creating the Reserve was within the government's legal authority, its establishment violated the rights of the people there. Here we report over a decade of work by a consortium of international and national human rights and conservation NGOs, the local communities and the protected areas authority (Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature), to remediate this taking of customary rights. Starting in 2008 these partners began a participatory process with all 550 villages within and around the boundary of the Reserve. Using a community resource use mapping approach, developed from best practices, the team helped communities determine the boundary of the Reserve, and then pilot participatory zoning to identify zones for settlements, agriculture, hunting, gathering of non-timber forest products, and conservation. This process secured the customary rights of long-term residents in the Reserve and protected their lands from being taken by non-rights holders. As a result of this work the use rights of communities were largely restored and the communities agreed on 23 June 2016 to formalize the boundaries of the renamed Itombwe Nature Reserve.

Abstract: Successful conservation actions require strategies that combine research, policy formulation and enforcement, practical interventions and education. Here we review the Armadillo Conservation Programme, which was initiated in 2012 as a pioneering multidisciplinary programme for the conservation and management of five armadillo species in the Orinoco Llanos of Colombia. It is led by a multi-institutional alliance that ensures active participation of stakeholders during all stages of the programme. Six main threats affecting armadillo populations in the Llanos were identified, and these were addressed in the first joint action plan of two Colombian environmental authorities. Scientific research facilitated an increase in the knowledge available about the armadillos of the Llanos, and the recategorization of the northern long-nosed armadillo Dasypus sabanicola on the IUCN Red List. Threat evaluation and mitigation included the assessment of illegal bushmeat trade and consumption in local restaurants and the establishment of a certification label for restaurants that do not sell wild meat. Multiple strategies were used to raise awareness about armadillos and position them as flagship species for the Llanos, including education programmes in schools, travelling exhibitions, talks at universities, and the publication of several books. The local communities were actively involved through a network of private reserves committed to the conservation of armadillos, in which armadillos are protected from poaching and monitored by farmers. Breeding and rehabilitation facilities were established that can host confiscated armadillos and raise awareness among the local communities. This case study shows that conservation programmes targeted at inconspicuous and poorly known species can be successful.

Abstract: New technologies can aid the success of conservation outcomes. Technology alone will not however guarantee conservation success; this hinges on user adoption. Hence, there is a need to understand users’ adoption decisions and how to account for these to streamline the introduction of new technologies. Wildlife law enforcement rangers constitute a key end-user group for conservation technologies, and although some studies have focused on ranger experiences, and on the impacts of policing technologies on crime rates, few have addressed technology adoption among law enforcement personnel, and none among rangers. To address this gap we conducted a case study focused on a new technology called the Protection Assistant for Wildlife Security (PAWS), which was developed to deter poaching by improving the deployment of wildlife law enforcement ranger foot patrols. We evaluated the impacts of an educational programme on the willingness of Indonesia-based rangers to adopt the tool. Following the programme, rangers reported high levels of willingness to adopt PAWS. Furthermore, the more engaged rangers were in the programme, the more useful and easy to use they perceived PAWS to be, and the stronger their adoption intentions. In contrast, rangers who were more resistant to technology from the outset were less engaged in the programme, highlighting the importance of identifying and addressing sources of resistance. Overall, the findings of this case study stress the significance of accounting for and educating end users in disseminating conservation technologies, reinforcing the importance of accounting for human dimensions of conservation.

Abstract: South-east Asian apple snails, Pila spp., have been declining since the introduction of globally invasive, confamilial South American Pomacea spp., yet Pila ecology remains poorly studied, with most occurrence records unconfirmed. Pila scutata, a previously widespread species, presumed native to the Malay peninsula and assessed as Least Concern in the IUCN Red List, was formerly harvested for food, and may have experienced anthropogenic translocations. We surveyed the Malay peninsula (specifically Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore) to investigate the current distribution and genetic diversity of P. scutata. Six populations were found in Singapore, but only one in Peninsular Malaysia. Mitochondrial COI and 16S sequencing revealed that the Malaysian population shared a single haplotype of both genes with the Singapore populations (500 km distant). This low genetic diversity could stem from a recent anthropogenic introduction, which brings into question the true native range of P. scutata and, coupled with poorly resolved taxonomy of the genus, necessitates a reassessment of its IUCN Red List status. Introduced populations pose a dilemma, and the lack of genetic diversity is of concern in light of Pila decline throughout South-east Asia. Our results highlight that conservation management of P. scutata and its congeners must therefore be better informed by greater taxonomic resolution and more comprehensive investigations of their ecology, both in native and introduced ranges.

Abstract: Livestock grazing is a key factor in many grassland ecosystems and can substantially influence the conservation of grassland species. The Crau steppe in southern France is a protected area that is traditionally grazed by sheep. The Critically Endangered Crau plain grasshopper Prionotropis rhodanica is endemic to the area and a flagship for the conservation of this unique ecosystem. Its population has declined significantly during the last 2 decades, but the reasons remain poorly understood. One potential factor is an altered habitat structure caused by changes in the grazing regime. We examined the microhabitat preferences of the species and compared the habitat structure of populated sites with those where the species is now extinct (former habitat). We found that populated sites had denser and higher vegetation, whereas former habitat had higher cover of stones and bare ground. Vegetation structure in the habitat of the smallest subpopulation was similar to areas of former habitat, suggesting a marginal habitat quality. Our results show that P. rhodanica requires 50–70% vegetation cover and suggest that grazing has contributed considerably to the population decline, but it remains unclear whether this is a direct effect of habitat degradation or an indirect effect by attracting predators associated with grazing activities. We recommend careful management of grazing to improve habitat quality, which would also benefit other invertebrates and insectivores. Continued monitoring is required to conserve habitat specialists in protected areas.

Abstract: Ecosystem services typically benefit multiple groups of people. However, natural resource management decisions aiming to secure ecosystem services for one beneficiary group rarely consider potential consequences for others. Here, we examine records of moose hunting in Vermont, USA, a recreational ecosystem service with at least two beneficiary groups: hunters, who benefit from recreational experiences and moose meat, and residents, who live in hunting areas and benefit from hunters' expenditures. We ask how the allocation of hunting permits has affected (1) the total number of hunters and therefore the benefits enjoyed by this group, (2) the benefits residents received, and (3) the spatial distribution of benefits for each group. We found that changes in the allocation of permits had heterogeneous effects on the beneficiaries. For example, increasing the number of hunting permits increased the total number of hunters, but not necessarily the number of residents who potentially benefit. Also, a more balanced distribution of permits across Vermont increased the total number of potentially benefiting residents, but not those from lower socio-economic groups. Understanding these differences and interactions between beneficiary groups is necessary to distribute benefits equitably amongst them.

Abstract: Habitat fragmentation creates habitat edges, and ecological edge effects can cause major changes in the ecology and distribution of many taxa. However, these ecological changes may in turn influence animal movements and lead to molecular edge effects and edge-related genetic structure, matters that are largely unexplored. This study aims to infer molecular edge effects and to test three possible underlying mechanisms in the Endangered golden-brown mouse lemur Microcebus ravelobensis, a nocturnal species in the dry deciduous forest of the Ankarafantsika National Park in north-western Madagascar. Mouse lemurs were sampled in one edge and two interior habitats in close proximity to each other (500–1,400 m) in a continuous forest. A total of 41 mouse lemur samples were genotyped with seven nuclear microsatellites, and a fragment of the mitochondrial control region was sequenced for all samples. The overall genetic diversity (allelic richness, heterozygosity, haplotype richness, nucleotide diversity) was lower in the edge habitat compared to the two interior sites and all subpopulations showed signals of relatively low genetic exchange and significant genetic differentiation between them despite the short geographical distances, supporting the local preference model. These findings can be interpreted as preliminary signals of a molecular edge effect and suggest the potential for local adaptation. They are highly relevant for the conservation of fragmented populations, because a further subdivision of already small populations may increase their vulnerability to stochastic demographic changes and collapse.

Abstract: We synthesize information on parameters useful for managing the hunting of two common mammal species that are important for local people in the Neotropics and Africa: Cuniculus paca and Philantomba monticola, respectively. We highlight the scarcity of data available on the parameters needed to manage these two species sustainably. As most of the studies were conducted > 40 years ago, we stress the need to supplement the information available using methodological and technical innovations. In particular, we call for new assessments covering the possible variations in parameter values across the species’ distribution ranges, and covering various anthropogenic contexts, to test density-dependent and compensatory processes that may explain the resilience of these species to hunting.

Abstract: On Earth Day weekend , Earth Optimism summits and related events around the world celebrated conservation success stories. In Washington, DC, over  presentations featured progress in protecting species and spaces, reducing pollution, restoring habitats, harvesting wisely, and tackling climate change (EarthOptimism, ). Participants included not only conservation scientists, but also policy makers, students, artists, engineers, inventors, and representatives of business, media and philanthropy. The successes described during the summits represented a fraction of positive developments around the world, and these continue to accumulate. Articles in this issue of Oryx, for example, point to progress in ameliorating negative human– wildlife interactions (Jamwal et al., ; Pozo et al., ; Scheijen et al., ), valuing protected areas (Davenport et al., ; Deacon & Tutchings, ; Lham et al., ), and increasing the potential for biodiversity and human wellbeing to improve hand-in-hand (Benedicto Royuela et al., ; Sardeshpande & MacMillan, ). A consistent theme in these—and many other—reports is the importance of engaging local communities (Kujirakwinja et al., ; Olendo et al., ; Superina et al., ). This bottom-up aspect of conservation successes means that by definition many are small in scale—each a drop in the bucket compared to the overall scope of the challenges we face. This mismatch in scale has led some to conclude that talking about such small successes is counterproductive because it could result in a decreased sense of the urgency of conservation amongst the general public and policy makers, or in the arming of those who oppose conservation outright with arguments that we need do no more. I received one e-mail suggesting that ‘Scientists who engage in optimism events should be ashamed of themselves’. Yet no one involved in the Earth Optimism and related movements argues that we are anywhere close to achieving what is needed to return human activities to sustainable levels. Nor are we suggesting that conservation failures or concerns go unexamined (plus there seems to be little risk of this, as reports of ongoing and impending disasters continue to pour in; e.g. Ripple et al. ). Rather, we are saying that we need more clearly documented and narrated stories of conservation success and better ways of finding these exemplars, which are often hard to track down. This is a genuine problem. I have found that almost anyone can rattle off a long list of environmental problems, but even conservation professionals are often remarkably unaware of what has been achieved, particularly in areas outside their expertise. We all need to know about what is working, as conservation successes such as those documented in this issue of Oryx provide an antidote to despair and its partner, apathy, and are a source of inspiration and information for those wishing to replicate or expand the scale of success. In this issue, for example, I gained much from Martin & Richardson’s () report of the complete eradication of rats and mice from South Georgia, one of the most important seabird nesting islands globally. The article provides valuable details on how this extraordinary success was achieved: the planning and funding required, how risks were minimized and effectiveness was monitored, and the need for continued vigilance. Even if South Georgia is just one island, and removing invasive rodents is just one conservation challenge, the fact that it was done on a surprisingly large scale by a small conservation organization is extremely encouraging, and the lessons learned will facilitate comparable efforts elsewhere, including in the tropics where removing rats could even benefit coral reefs (Graham et al., ). Over the last decade we have made inroads in professional and public awareness that all is not lost. When we organized the first Beyond the Obituaries symposium on ocean conservation successes in  at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History, one of my colleagues told me there weren’t enough successes even to fill a daylong programme. Less than  years after the launch of #OceanOptimism by  of us in , the tag has been used by over , Twitter accounts. In addition to a growing number of professional articles that analyse the elements of success (e.g. Cinner et al., ; Pringle, ), several books have featured this theme (e.g. Balmford, ; Bloomberg & Pope, ). Nevertheless, we are in a race against time across all environmental fronts, and I often feel that the efforts to publicize environmental successes are themselves too small in scale. Whenever I tell an audience about the partial recovery of sea turtles (Mazaris et al., ) or of Chesapeake Bay (Lefcheck et al., ), it is gratifying to know that – more people are now aware of these achievements. But if our goal is to reach one billion people with this message— as it should be—our efforts are falling far short. Fortunately, the media now seems more receptive to telling the story of NANCY KNOWLTON, Smithsonian Institution, P.O. Box 37012, MRC 163, Washington, DC 20013-7012, USA. E-mail knowlton@si.edu

Abstract: With the demand for live songbirds in South-east Asia so high and negatively affecting so many species, conservationists have dubbed it the Asian songbird crisis. Nowhere is this crisis felt more than on the Indonesian island of Java, where tens of thousands of wild-caught birds are openly offered for sale in bird markets every day. In July  Indonesia published its long-awaited new protected species list. Unfortunately few of the heavily traded songbirds that were not already on the  list were included. One of these omissions is the Asian fairy-bluebird Irena puella, a bird as attractive as its name suggests. Males have an iridescent blue and black plumage and a loud liquid two-note call, making them highly desirable in the Indonesian songbird trade. Partially because of its large South-east Asian range, the species is categorized as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, although it is noted that its populations are declining. Some of the various subspecies, in particular that on Java (Irena puella turcosa), are recorded in the wild less and less frequently. We believe that, at least on Java, part of this rarity is due to excessive trapping for the domestic songbird trade. Between August  and August  we recorded  Asian fairy-bluebirds during  surveys in  bird markets on Java, Bali and Lombok. Although in many bird markets only single individuals were on offer, several bird markets had relatively large numbers for sale per survey: Pramuka (mean of .), Jatinegara (.) and Barito (.) in Jakarta; Plered (.) in Cirebon; Sukahaji (.) in Bandung; and Depok (.) in Surakarta. In August  we found Asian fairy-bluebirds offered for sale on two online classified ad webpages (OLX.co.id and inkuiri.com) and a specialist Facebook group (komunitas burung cucuk biru), mainly by sellers from western Java ( advertisements) and central Java (). We also found the species on offer in two bird markets on Bali and one on Lombok, and online in Bali and Sulawesi—three islands east of their natural range— demonstrating they are traded over long distances. Prices varied from USD  for a newly captured bird to USD  for an accomplished singer. The mean asking price based on  first quotes was USD , thus making it affordable for a large proportion of Javanese society (the  government recommended minimum monthly wage for Jakarta is USD ). We expect that most of the Asian fairy-bluebirds were sourced in Java, augmented with imports from Sumatra and Borneo. There was a strong correlation between the size of the market and the number of Asian fairybluebirds on display (,  shops, mean of . birds; - shops, . birds; .  shops, . birds), and with at least  bird markets on Java, Bali and Lombok we estimate that on any given day  Asian fairy-bluebirds are offered for sale. If we assume that a quarter of the birds are sold within  weeks, and half within  weeks (anything less makes the trade probably no longer economically viable), then . , birds may pass through these markets annually. Quantifying the number of birds on offer in the virtual marketplace was not possible, but it probably adds substantially to the estimate for the bird markets. Despite still not being legally protected in Indonesia, commercial trade in Asian fairy-bluebirds is strictly regulated and only limited numbers are allowed to be captured and sold as pets. The  harvest quota indicates that no more than  Asian fairy blue birds can be captured in the province of Jambi (Sumatra) and  in Central Kalimantan (Borneo) but none from Java. Perhaps the opportunity to add Asian fairy-bluebirds to Indonesia’s protected species list has passed, but we urge the Indonesian authorities, and especially the regional branches of the Natural Resources Conservation Agency, to be more vigilant in checking actual and virtual bird markets, and ensuring that no additional birds are traded outside the approved harvest quotas.

Abstract: Traditionally the vulnerability of threatened species to extinction has been assessed by studying their environment, genetics and population dynamics. A more comprehensive understanding of the factors promoting or limiting the long-term persistence of threatened species could be achieved by conducting an analysis of their functional responses to changing environments, their ecological interactions, and their role in ecosystem functioning. These less traditional research areas can be unified in a trait-based approach, a recent methodological advance in ecology that is being used to link individual-level functions to species, community and ecosystem processes to provide mechanistic explanations of observed patterns, particularly in changing environments. We illustrate how trait-based information can be translated into well-defined conservation strategies, using the example of Dioon sonorense, an Endangered cycad endemic to north-western Mexico. Scientific information yielded by trait-based research, coupled with existing knowledge derived from well-established traditional approaches, could facilitate the development of more integrative conservation strategies to promote the long-term persistence of individual threatened species. A comprehensive database of functional traits of threatened species would be of value in assisting the implementation of the trait-based approach.

Abstract: Protected areas help to decrease human impacts on threatened mammals but do not always include species’ core habitats. Here we focus on the Vulnerable taruka Hippocamelus antisensis near the Atacama Desert, Chile, a population that is mainly threatened by interactions with local human communities. We develop a species distribution model for taruka and assess the contribution of protected areas to safeguarding its preferred habitat. From sightings (collected during 2004–2015), absence records (collected in 2014), and environmental variables, we determined that taruka habitat is scarce, highly fragmented and limited to humid areas. Only 7.7–11.2% of the taruka's core habitat is under protection. We recommend the establishment of a protected area in the south of Arica-Parinacota district, an area without settlements that lies within the taruka's core habitat, along with educational programmes, fencing of crops, and inclusion of communities in decision-making in areas where farmer–taruka interactions are negative.

Abstract: in recentmemory witnessed the extinction of a mustelid: the sea mink Neovison macrodon, formerly found along North America’s east coast and last recorded in . The Critically Endangered Europeanmink could become the next mammalian extinction this century, and over half of otter species are threatened. The Biology and Conservation of Musteloids is a comprehensive synthesis of and much-needed addition to its field. As well as offering a valuable reference for everything we know about musteloid ecology, the book also identifies avenues for further work and research, in both ecology and conservation. I note that the volumes on canids and felids are available as a two-volume set named Biology and Conservation of Wild Carnivores. Hopefully this volume on musteloids will be added to this, to form a trilogy, with musteloids taking their rightful place alongside their larger relatives.

Abstract: Dealing with large carnivore conservation issues means dealing with people and their interests. Easy to read, this informative book focuses on the nature and quality of human interactions integral to carnivore conservation. Human Dimensions convincingly demonstrates that these are amongst the most important elements in addressing coexistence challenges. This excellent volume condenses decades of high-quality research into who the relevant stakeholders are, how they interact and negotiate with each other, and how their value systems, mandates and actions influence the legitimacy and outcomes of carnivore management policies. Human Dimensions consists of three main sections, with  chapters. The authors represent a wide range of professional disciplines and research backgrounds, facilitating a truly comprehensive analysis of this difficult subject. By studying the human actors at play, they examine the controversial debate about large carnivores in a conservation psychology context. Much more than about carnivores or conflict, this book is about the importance of mutual respect and democratic consultation, key prerequisites for identifying common ground for collaboration and reaching broad societal consensus. Part I (Chapters –) provides a useful synopsis of the theoretical and methodological perspectives of stakeholder interactions in carnivore conservation. This part sets out important definitions and outlines the complex arenas in which societal discourse takes place. The authors carefully examine the roles, functions, and responsibilities of various actors and antagonists. They also explore the social, cultural and political dimensions of stakeholder participation and suggest different mechanisms to coordinate dialogue through consensus-seeking processes. Tasos Hovardas, the editor, concludes this section with a pragmatic framework for stakeholder engagement and analysis. Part II (Chapters –) portrays the diversity of stakeholder perceptions and the resulting social and environmental behaviours. These chapters illustrate how social identity and policy frameworks can shape attitudes towards large carnivores and other stakeholders through complicated reciprocal relationships. Although a common topic throughout the volume, the authors focus in particular on stakeholder polarization, such as between urban and rural interest groups. They also outline avenues to resolve governance issues and disparities in decision-making power. Part III (Chapters –) reviews decisionand policy-making at the broadest societal dimensions, covering topics such as ethics and the law. The chapters highlight the importance of trans-national collaborations, which appropriately reflect the far-reaching activities and impacts of large carnivores. The authors examine strategic partnership opportunities with key sectors of society, such as business and politics. Advocating for fairer societal discourse and participation, they also consider the implications of decentralization in decision-making, which, ultimately, could improve public acceptance of carnivore management policies. This book is neither dogmatic nor does it contain unnecessary technical jargon, making it an accessible resource that provides generous practical guidance. For instance, various chapters contain useful, mixed quantitative and qualitative research methods from environmental social science. The chosen case studies vividly illustrate the different dimensions of societal discourse, the power relations between stakeholders, as well as their complicated interrelations. That most examples are drawn from Europe does not diminish their universal relevance. Hovardas and colleagues critically appraise different carnivore management frameworks, including successful and less successful approaches, always emphasizing the contextspecific nature of social challenges. They skilfully review community settings in light of constantly changing societies with dynamic norms and values. The need for more democratic reconciliation of stakeholder positions reverberates throughout the text. Coexistence with carnivores requires broad societal compromise and this volume expertly disentangles the social and political implications of such an agreement. The book covers a lot of ground and it provides a valuable resource for those involved in, or unfamiliar with, the human dimensions of large carnivore conservation and management.