Showing papers in "Language Learning Journal in 2025"
TL;DR: This critical commentary on the DfE 2025 Curriculum and Assessment Review Interim Report argues that the report neglects multilingual learners, adopting a translanguaging perspective to highlight the need for inclusive education and practical recommendations for harnessing their language repertoires.
Abstract: ABSTRACT Classrooms across England are becoming increasingly multilingual, with over 20% of learners considered to be using English as an Additional Language. The resources, assets and identities that these learners bring to our classrooms can and must be acknowledged, harnessed and included in our day-to-day practices if education in England is to maintain current standards. However, despite multiple references to inclusivity, the Department for Education Curriculum and Assessment Review Interim Report [DfE (Department for Education). 2025b. Curriculum and Assessment Review: Interim Report. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/6821d69eced319d02c9060e3/Curriculum_and_Assessment_Review_interim_report.pdf] neglects to even mention such learners, let alone discuss the assets, needs and challenges that they bring to school each day. This critical commentary on the report adopts a translanguaging perspective, recognising our multilingual learners’ identities and language repertoires as opportunities, not impediments, for making our classrooms, education system and society more inclusive, cohesive and empowered. It identifies important shortcomings in the report in this regard, and offers clear, practical recommendations for achieving the goals it prioritises, arguing that the forthcoming national curriculum must make explicit reference to such learners, offer guidance on multilingual inclusion and pedagogy, and recognise the need for flexibility in solutions for harnessing the potential of our increasing multiculturalism if it is to avoid sleepwalking into superdiversity.
3 citations
TL;DR: This article proposes a multi-layered approach to language education policy, outlining six guiding tenets and advocating for a broader, more inclusive approach that values linguistic diversity and promotes richer models of language in education.
Abstract: ABSTRACT Animated by general agreement that language education in England is too narrow, this article introduces a multi-layered approach to policy development, and outlines six tenets guiding the recently formed Coalition for Language Education: ‘Recognise the richness of language in our lives’, ‘Accept linguistic diversity’; ‘Engage with social and cultural change’, ‘Respect the complexity of classrooms’, ‘Build partnerships’, and ‘Draw on universities’. These precepts are backed by a great deal of research and practical experience, and they feed into at least three pressing tasks for our Coalition: specifying collective problems (see our joint CLIE & CLE digest of submissions to the DfE’s Curriculum & Assessment Review [CAR]); strengthening teacher education; and promoting richer models of language for education. The opportunities for dialogue afforded by CAR are a very welcome addition to the policy landscape, and point to the need for a longer-term forum beyond the DfE for ongoing consultation with stakeholders. But there are also other important sites and forms of alliance – multilingual cities, third sector/university collaborations, teacher associations – and the Coalition’s six tenets are offered as broad orientation points for these and other policy actors, proposing an overall direction for the incremental changes they seek.
1 citations
TL;DR: This study examines the relationship between school-level curriculum policy, GCSE language uptake, and attainment in England, finding that institutional commitment to language learning strongly predicts GCSE uptake and that broader language provision is associated with higher attainment.
Abstract: ABSTRACT Language learning in state-maintained schools in England is a compulsory part of the curriculum between the ages of 7-14. However, decisions around whether to position languages as ‘core’ or ‘optional’ beyond this stage are devolved to individual schools and there is little evidence on how such school-level curriculum policies influence uptake and attainment, particularly in light of wider accountability measures like the English Baccalaureate. This paper addresses this gap by quantitatively analysing data from a representative sample of 615 state-funded secondary schools in England on school curriculum policies for modern languages (ages 14–16) and attainment in GCSE modern languages examinations, controlling for other relevant variables such as disadvantage, prior attainment and linguistic diversity. Multiple regression analysis revealed that school-level curriculum policy is the strongest predictor of GCSE language uptake, highlighting the importance of institutional commitment to language learning in shaping students’ opportunities. Analysis of the attainment data indicated that while a higher uptake of GCSE languages was associated with a marginal decrease in average attainment, offering a greater number of language options was independently associated with higher attainment. This suggests that broadening language provision may help support attainment outcomes, even as a more diverse range of students take languages.
1 citations
TL;DR: This study examines systemic inequality in language education access in England, identifying four drivers: neoliberal policies, school segregation, and outdated understanding of language study. It proposes policy measures to address the social divide and misconceptions about language learning.
Abstract: ABSTRACT The article takes as its starting point the current English government's ambition to ‘break down barriers’ in education by enabling every young person to follow the educational pathway that is right for them, with specific reference to language learning at secondary level (Key Stages 3 and 4). Recent Language Trends data demonstrate systemic inequality in access to language education according to socio-economic status (SES). The authors identify and discuss the four main factors which have driven this inequality, namely: a neoliberal policy in respect of languages; neoliberal education policies more generally; school segregation by SES cohort intake in England, especially at secondary level; and an outdated and elitist understanding of the purpose of language study itself. Engaging critically with the arguments commonly used against the need to increase England's language learning capacity, the authors set out a holistic rationale for language learning as beneficial to the whole nation, emphasising its social, rather than purely economic aspects. They conclude by proposing a set of concrete policy measures to address the social divide in language learning, and misconceptions about language learning more generally.
1 citations
TL;DR: This study explores language learning progression in primary schools, defining "substantial progress" through linguistic and non-linguistic outcomes, and identifies key factors influencing progression, including teacher confidence, language input, and continuity across key stages.
Abstract: ABSTRACT The Curriculum and Assessment Review’s Interim Report (CAR [2025]. Interim Report. Crown Copyright. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/6821d69eced319d02c9060e3/Curriculum_and_Assessment_Review_interim_report.pdf) flagged potential concerns relating to the efficacy of languages teaching particularly in primary schools. In response, this paper explores how ‘substantial progress’ (DfE [2013]. Languages Programmes of Study: Key Stage 2. National Curriculum in England. Crown Copyright) in language learning can be defined in terms of both linguistic and non-linguistic outcomes and discusses recent research evidence indicating that demonstrable progress in language learning throughout the four years of learning at primary school is possible. In light of the numerous challenges primary schools face with implementing the languages curriculum, the key factors (e.g. amount and quality of language input, teacher confidence and expertise, continuity across key stages) which may impact progression are discussed.
1 citations
TL;DR: This qualitative study explores how an Iranian EFL teacher's agency and professional identity are affected by emotion labour in two public schools, revealing how growing contradictions eroded her sense of agency and professional identity.
Abstract: Language teacher identity (LTI), and its essential component, teacher agency, are inextricably intertwined with emotion labour. This qualitative case study explored how the agency and LTI of an early-career Iranian female teacher of EFL (English as a foreign language) were affected by her engagement in emotion labour in two public schools. Data in the form of class observations and semi-structured interviews were collected, focusing on the emotional episodes of the participant's practice at her previous and current workplaces, and then analysed through grounded theory procedures. The findings revealed that while the favourable emotional atmosphere of the first school helped the novice teacher to be at ease with her LTI, growing emotion labour caused by the deep-seated contradictions in the second school eroded her sense of agency and made her give her current job affiliation a second thought. Implications and suggestions for further research are discussed.
TL;DR: Research on primary language education reveals mixed results on early start benefits, shifting focus from "when" to "how" to teach languages effectively in multilingual settings, with emphasis on maximizing learner engagement and contextual factors.
Abstract: ABSTRACT Study of a foreign language has become established in the mainstream of primary education in recent decades, including in Anglophone settings. This article responds to the current Curriculum and Assessment Review in England, with an analysis of the main policy drivers underpinning the international promotion of an early start for languages, and the related research evidence. Earlier research focused on whether an early start led to higher long term achievement, with mixed results. Later research has increasingly acknowledged the many contextual and individual factors which interact with starting age to impact attainment; research attention is shifting from whether to teach primary languages, to how to do it well and how to maximise learner engagement in increasingly multilingual settings. The article concludes with a brief review of the steps needed to establish languages more securely and meaningfully in the English primary curriculum.
TL;DR: This study extends the Communication-Oriented Language Teaching (COLT) framework by incorporating socio-cultural, moral-spiritual, and aesthetic macro-functions, derived from metaphor analyses of student and teacher data in China, Malaysia, and Iran, to enhance learner engagement and motivation.
Abstract: William Littlewood noted how communicative language teaching is increasingly oriented towards meaningful communication This orientation features 'macro-principles' to promote high learner engagement and motivation for communication. Macro-principles are transferrable for learning but should be contextualised locally. This leads to a framework – Communication-Oriented Language Teaching (COLT) – intended to enhance the content of language learning by emphasizing personalized learning through meaningful materials and task relevance. These macro-principles are enacted through learner collaboration, variety, and challenge. The framework draws on four 'dimensions' of engagement (cognitive, behavioural, emotional, and social) which apply not only to language teaching but to a broader dialogue as a 'cosmopolitan conversation.' This paper sets out to extend the framework by drawing on analyses of extensive data-sets of metaphors about language teaching and learning from students and teachers in China, Malaysia, and Iran. We propose adding 'socio-cultural,' 'moral-spiritual', and 'aesthetic' as 'macro-functions' of language, relatable to macro-principles for classroom teaching. This new bottom-up picture largely confirms top-down proposals made by recognized experts. However, we argue that our system of macro-functions adds a more holistic, bottom-up orientation, derived from participant data with a claim to be learner-centred and teacher-confirmed. We discuss implications for applying this extended framework through engagement with Sustainable Development Goals.
TL;DR: This paper argues that top-down language policy matters, citing examples from the UK, and advocates for holistic, cross-government approaches to language education policy, acknowledging the broader impact of languages on national interests.
Abstract: ABSTRACT This paper argues that top-down language policy matters and that policymaking would benefit from: (i) a longer historical purview of what has and has not worked, and (ii) more holistic, cross-government approaches. Drawing on examples from the past two decades from across the UK, this paper starts by demonstrating the impact of top-down educational policy about languages, notably on uptake. It contrasts the negative impact of the 2004 removal of the statutory requirement for languages at KS4 in England and that of compulsory languages at primary level in Northern Ireland with the success of the Mandarin Excellence Programme. It then reviews more mixed outcomes, including compulsory language learning at KS2 in 2014, the EBacc’s development in England, implementation of the 1 + 2 approach in Scotland, and the attempts to increase the number of Welsh speakers in Wales. In the second part, we argue that language education policy in the Department for Education would benefit from greater acknowledgment across government of the broader impact of languages, as ongoing work with the Home Office and the Department for Health and Social Care illustrates. We conclude with the recent case made by the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office for more British speakers of Mandarin.
TL;DR: This study examines how local context influences secondary languages education in England, using Complexity theory to analyze survey data and case studies of two schools with the same policy, highlighting the interplay of various factors in shaping languages outcomes.
Abstract: ABSTRACT This article seeks to understand variation in secondary languages education in England through the lens of Complexity theory. Using a broad-to-narrow approach, we first present survey data from 108 schools in the National Consortium for Languages Education (NCLE) programme between 2023 and 2025 in terms of overall patterns of variation in languages participation and outcomes, and the prevalence of Key Stage 4 (KS4) language policies. We then report noticeable differences in school and pupil characteristics, resources, and languages outcomes, among the schools adopting the same ‘Compulsory for All’ (CFA) policy at KS4. Case studies of two CFA schools illustrate how the schools’ distinct historical trajectories, along with interacting supportive and challenging elements such as leadership commitment, cultural investment, parent buy-in, teacher recruitment and retention, and pupil intake and motivation etc., shape and are shaped by languages provision and contribute to contrasting experiences. To highlight these dynamics, we propose a ‘languages education iceberg’ visualisation, in which various school environment elements interact beneath the visible tips of the ‘iceberg’ – participation and outcomes, as well as policy enactment. Approaching schools as Complex Adaptive Systems recognises the non-linear, interdependent nature of influences, and highlights the importance of local contexts when designing and enacting languages education initiatives.
TL;DR: This paper synthesizes 19 submissions from language education professionals, highlighting consensus on curriculum reform to support multilingualism, promote language awareness, and embed inclusion, with a focus on assessment reform and recognition of oracy and digital literacies.
Abstract: ABSTRACT This paper presents a collaborative synthesis of 19 submissions from professional bodies responding to the Department for Education’s Curriculum and Assessment Review (CAR). Coordinated by the Coalition for Language Education (CLE) and the Committee for Linguistics in Education (CLiE), the synthesis highlights broad consensus across the language education sector. Respondents collectively call for curriculum reform that supports multilingualism, promotes language awareness, and embeds inclusion as a guiding principle. The findings also stress the need for assessment reform, more flexible post-16 pathways, and greater recognition of oracy and digital literacies. Taken together, the submissions reveal a strong, unified voice for systemic change in language education, urging policymakers to address gaps identified in the CAR Interim Report and to create a curriculum that reflects the linguistic diversity of contemporary England.
TL;DR: This paper advocates for fundamental reform in UK MFL education, proposing a competence-based approach, incorporating IT and making the curriculum more relevant to students and employers, to boost motivation and improve assessment validity.
Abstract: ABSTRACT This paper undertakes a comprehensive analysis of the current issues in MFL education, advocating fundamental reform based on the Languages Ladder. It argues that student motivation can be boosted by making the curriculum more relevant to students’ and employers’ needs and incorporating IT software into teaching. The associated competence-based, ‘can-do’, approach to assessment supports improved primary-to-secondary transition and improves validity. Since the GCSE brand drives the curriculum, future revisions based on a Languages Ladder Assessment Scheme could pay multiple dividends and create a language learning framework for the twenty-first century.
TL;DR: HHCL learning differs from instructed L2 learning, requiring cultural and emotional investment for ancestral language preservation, with implications for pedagogy and policy, and valorizing HHCLs through complementary schooling and partnerships is vital for linguistic and cultural diversity.
Abstract: ABSTRACT One in five of school children in England has a home, heritage and community language (HHCL) other than English. HHCL learning is fundamentally different from instructed second language (L2) learning in schools. For HHCL learners, acquiring or reacquiring their ancestral language is not merely an academic pursuit, but an act of cultural inheritance and preservation. The cultural and emotional attachment and investment that is needed in HHCL learning cannot be replaced by generative artificial intelligence or other learning technologies. Understanding such issues – differences between HHCL learning and instructed L2 learning, the cultural and emotional investment required – has important implications for pedagogy and policy. There has been a long history of complementary schooling for HHCL learners in the UK. Valorising HHCLs through strengthening the support for complementary schools as well as encouraging partnerships between mainstream schools and complementary schools is vital in enriching Britain’s linguistic and cultural diversity and agility.
TL;DR: This article critiques the UK's Curriculum and Assessment Review, arguing that Modern Languages in England's national curriculum require both evolution and revolution to address challenges, and proposes concrete recommendations for the review panel.
Abstract: ABSTRACT In this article, we offer a personal response to the interim report of the Curriculum and Assessment Review (CAR: Department forEducation (Dfe). 2025. Curriculum and Assessment Review: Interim Report. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/curriculum-and-assessment-review-interim-report). The report pledges to undertake ‘deeper analysis to diagnose the specific issues affecting each subject’ (9). Our aim is therefore to contribute to this analysis in relation to Modern Languages in particular, and to offer concrete recommendations for the review panel. We argue that, to respond effectively to the challenges facing Modern Languages in schools, some elements of both evolution and revolution will be needed, as well as greater clarity about the aims and purposes of the subject and the nature of learning in its different strands. The article examines the place of Modern Languages at different stages of a ‘knowledge-rich’ curriculum, along with a number of related questions (including statutory requirements, assessment, and the choice of which language). We then discuss the nature of languages as a ‘pluricentric’ discipline with multiple aims (including Languages as skill development; the development of intercultural understanding; and the development of knowledge about language). We conclude with some proposals for consideration that embrace both evolution and revolution.
TL;DR: This Special Collection rethinks language education in England's school curriculum, featuring contributions from leading researchers and practitioners, with recommendations to strengthen language provision and inform the Curriculum and Assessment Review Team.
Abstract: ABSTRACT This Special Collection comprises contributions to the debate on languages across the school curriculum from leading researchers and practitioners in the field. It aims to support the strengthening of language provision in maintained education in England with recommendations for the Curriculum and Assessment Review Team.
TL;DR: This systematic review and meta-analysis of 13 studies (n=278) found a significant negative association between foreign language anxiety and cognitive factors, including cognitive load, attention, and working memory functioning, with a moderate effect size (θ = –0.28).
Abstract: Many studies have investigated how cognitive factors (e.g. working memory and attention) and emotional-motivational factors (such as foreign language anxiety) may impact foreign language (FL) learning. Despite this progress, there is still much to be understood about the combined effect of these factors on the FL learning process. This systematic review aims to address this gap by analysing the relationship between foreign language anxiety and cognition. The review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The search strategy identified 278 studies, of which only 13 eligible records were identified, after the screening process. The eligible studies explored the relationship between foreign language anxiety and cognitive factors, such as cognitive load, working memory, attention, and need for cognition. These studies generally indicated that foreign language anxiety (FLA) is associated with higher cognitive load, lack of attention and poorer working memory functioning. This result is fully supported by the metanalytic result (θ = – 0.28, Z = −10.20, SE = 0.027, p < 0.001). Future research should specifically examine the impact of FLA on cognitive abilities, focusing on intra-linguistic factors in native and foreign languages. Conducting rigorous experiments with robust random sampling and similar instruments will help making the results comparable and generalisable.
TL;DR: This study explores how digital technology enhances teacher competence and confidence, while developing children's linguistic skills and 21st-century competencies like creativity and empathy, in primary languages education.
Abstract: ABSTRACT Primary languages can make an important contribution to the aims of the Curriculum and Assessment Review Group. Drawing on our Digital Empowerment in Language Teaching (DELTEA) research project, we show how digital technology can enhance teacher competence and confidence while developing children's linguistic skills alongside crucial twenty-first-century competencies such as creativity and empathy. We argue that primary languages education can play a vital role in the Review's vision for developing in all learners essential skills for modern life, when supported by appropriate digital tools and investment.
TL;DR: This article advocates for integrating British Sign Language into deaf education in England, arguing that a bilingual model can improve outcomes for deaf pupils and enrich learning for hearing peers by addressing policy, assessment, and socio-economic challenges.
Abstract: This article argues for the integration of British Sign Language (BSL) into the core of deaf education in England. Despite progress in early identification and intervention, deaf pupils continue to experience educational disadvantage, with persistent attainment gaps compared to their hearing peers. Current policy remains rooted in a medicalised model of deafness, with BSL marginalised in favour of speech and audiological interventions. The authors identify five key challenges: the dominance of disability frameworks over language rights; the medicalisation of deaf education; the exclusion of BSL from the National Curriculum; the impact of socio-economic inequality; and weak assessment arrangements. The paper explores how meaningful integration of BSL would look, including the adoption of the BSL Curriculum, the rollout of the BSL GCSE, workforce development for BSL teachers, and reform of assessment practices. Drawing on policy reviews, attainment data, and practitioner insights, the authors show how a bilingual model, placing BSL on an equal footing with English, can support improved outcomes for deaf pupils and enrich learning for hearing peers.
TL;DR: This study explores the implementation of the Gelisa model, a multilingual teaching approach, in teacher education and the languages classroom, highlighting its potential and challenges in promoting cross-linguistic understanding and multilingualism in Norwegian schools.
Abstract: ABSTRACT As teachers are faced with the task of implementing multilingual approaches in school education, new concepts are needed to support their work in the classroom. Furthermore, it is the responsibility of educators to provide student teachers with new methods and concepts already during training. In the present study, the generalised linear sentence model (Gelisa model (Wöllstein and Zepter 2015)) is used as a didactic tool to highlight cross-linguistic differences and similarities on a syntactic level. In a two-stage design, a group of Norwegian student teachers is introduced to a multilingual teaching approach based on the model, with one of them further applying the concept in the classroom. Their experiences and ideas are evaluated using semi-structured interviews. Even though the participants show a positive attitude towards multilingualism and see great potential in the model, many challenges remain. On the one hand, there needs to be more room in teacher education for models like Gelisa so that prospective teachers can build up their confidence in using them in their teaching. On the other hand, practising teachers also need access to new concepts to meet the criteria of the current Norwegian curriculum focussing on multilingualism as an asset.
TL;DR: This study explores the relationship between pre-service teachers' multilingual identities, language experiences, and beliefs about multilingualism, finding that perceived language fluency and prescriptive views of languages are associated with multilingual identity, with implications for teacher education.
Abstract: ABSTRACT Despite an increase in research on language learners’ multilingual identities (MId), the construct of teacher multilingual identities as a gateway to linguistically inclusive teaching remains under-researched, and the factors shaping teachers’ willingness to claim and express a multilingual identity remain unclear. This article explores two factors that might influence teachers’ MId, namely teachers’ language experience and beliefs about multilingualism. MId data was obtained through a questionnaire administered to 117 pre-service teachers spanning subject specialism in England. A sub-sample of 51 participants also completed a Q-sorting activity where they expressed their views of multilingualism. Correlation analyses revealed that perceived language fluency had the strongest association with MId. Furthermore, those participants who held a prescriptive view of languages and perceived multilingualism as the exception in schools also tended to express a monolingual identity. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of the study findings for researchers and teacher educators.
TL;DR: This study examines the marginalized identity of Iranian EFL teachers through narrative analysis, revealing struggles with agency, isolation, and lack of appreciation, leading to a repositioning of their identity through postgraduate qualifications to secure academic positions.
Abstract: This study explores the marginalised identity of three Iranian English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers by analysing their narratives texts, using a three-level positioning approach to explore how participants positioned themselves and others in their narratives. Struggles to exercise agency, isolation (distancing oneself from colleagues), colleagues lacking specialist qualifications, and a perceived lack of appreciation influenced their professional identity development, leading to marginalised identity. The findings suggest how the positionality of participants regarding themselves and others was violated when they practised in private language teaching institutes. The persistent experience of being marginalised acted as a stimulus for them to reposition their identity within the ELT context by obtaining postgraduate qualifications to secure positions in academia.