Abstract: Summary The gorilla and elephant populations of Kahuzi-Biega National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) have recently suffered from intensive commercial and subsistence poaching. In just four years, the highland sector of the park lost more than 95% of its elephant population and about 50% of its gorilla population. This tragedy was precipitated by the recent political and economic crises in the region. Many factors contributed to increased hunting of wildlife for food known as “bushmeat.” Among the principal factors were starvation and economic desperation in local communities, the spread of small arms, and the collapse of park protection during the civil wars. The incentive to hunt gorillas in the park may have developed gradually with the collapse of the Mobutu regime, the influx of refugees, and the two subsequent civil wars. Local re sentments felt toward the park and its authorities may have contributed to the willingness of local people to engage in illegal exploitation of wildlife...

Abstract: Summary Tropical forests are one of the world's last remaining frontiers. Like all frontiers, they are sites of dynamic social, ecological, political, and economic changes. Such dynamism involves constantly changing advantages and disadvantages to different groups of people, which not surprisingly leads to armed conflict, and all too frequently to war. Many governments have contributed to conflict by nationalizing their forests, so that traditional forest inhabitants have been disenfranchised while national governments sell trees to concessionaires to earn foreign exchange. Biodiversity-rich tropical forests in Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Indochina, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Central Africa, the Amazon, Colombia, Central America, and New Caledonia have all been the sites of armed conflict, sometimes involving international forces. While these conflicts have frequently, even invariably, caused negative impacts on biodiversity, peace is often even worse, as it enables forest exploitation to operate with impunity....

Abstract: SUMMARY This article, in two parts, starts by examining the process at play in the definition of a coherent planning unit for protected areas. The argument centers around the differences between the natural and social science approaches to defining the boundaries to such areas, indicating how the two have influenced planning. The difficult challenge of combining both visions is stressed, and illustrated by a discussion of the concepts of region and bioregion. The second part of the paper examines the biosphere reserve model and its application to areas spanning international boundaries. The five existing transboundary biosphere reserves, all situated in Europe, illustrate some of the issues facing transboundary planning.

Abstract: SUMMARY Attempts to impose regional conservation strategies from the top down without local participation are doomed to failure. Even so, this does not negate the critical importance of promoting international transboundary conservation. This paper draws on a research project which examined transboundary cooperation in the 136 complexes of protected areas that adjoin across international boundaries, examples of internationally divided ecosystems. The results of an international survey demonstrate that such transboundary cooperation is already occurring in 82% of the cases, although most of it is at relatively low levels. Analysis reveals that numerous different variables correlate with cooperation but, not surprisingly, the most important ones are distinctly human variables relating to human relationships. This strengthens the proposal that sustainability of conservation projects depends on inclusion of all stakeholders and development of a supportive constituency. While international organizations play c...

Abstract: Summary The war and genocide that swept through Rwanda and the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo has severely disrupted conservation activities there. However, those conservation organizations that have stayed in the region have been able to achieve a considerable amount. During 1998, I carried out a survey of staff from two conservation projects in Rwanda to determine what had motivated them to carry on working despite the loss of all senior staff, the suspension of regular salaries, and threats to their lives. The two projects were the Nyungwe Forest Conservation Project supported by the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) and the Karisoke Research Center supported by the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International. Staff at both sites felt that continuing to work had increased the risk to their lives. The factors that motivated staff to continue working included their expectation of future payment of salaries, the dedication of conservation organizations to supporting the sites, and the dedication of...

Abstract: Summary The tactics of war have profound impacts on tropical forest ecosystems, and modern weapons technologies have greatly increased their destructive potential. Some legal protection is afforded by customary international law, and the international community responded to the Vietnam War by adopting, inter alia, the 1977 Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions and the 1976 Environmental Modification Convention, which prohibit “long-term” (or “long-lasting”), “widespread,” and “severe” environmental damage. Nevertheless, many regard these and other existing conventions as inadequate, especially as applied to internal conflicts. More recently, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature-World Conservation Union (IUCN) put forth a Draft Convention on the Prohibition of Hostile Military Activities in Internationally Protected Areas. This paper analyzes the IUCN Draft Convention-particularly issues of prior designation of protected areas, waiver of protection, and monitoring and enforcemen...

Abstract: SUMMARY This paper provides a brief overview of some key experiences from protected area management projects in Africa and Asia, to help set the scene for the new generation of transboundary protected areas. Particular attention is given to projects attempting to support protected area management by improving the welfare of local people, a key component of many transboundary protected area initiatives. During the 1990s the funding available to support protected areas in the tropics increased significantly, leading to a proliferation of Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs) and similar approaches. But many of these attempts to broaden access to conservation benefits by establishing tangible links between protected area management and economic development among local communities have been based on unrealistic assumptions and have struggled to be effective. As a result, future international funding for similar initiatives may be at risk.

Abstract: Summary In the 1980s, Nicaragua's Sandinista government faced armed mestizo and indigenous insurgencies in much of the nation's central and eastern regions. After the Sandinistas lost the 1990 elections, the in-coming government signed peace agreements with the insurgents and facilitated their return to civilian life. With the war over, the Nicaraguan army greatly reduced its troop strength, leaving tens of thousands of people unemployed. Within a few years, however, many former insurgents and soldiers took up arms again for multiple and complex reasons. This paper examines how three groups that rearmed influenced forest conservation in the buffer zone of Nicaragua's Bosawas Biosphere Reserve between 1991 and 1999. The three groups were the mestizo Northern Front 3-80 (FN 3-80) and the Andres Castro United Forces (FUAC), made up of former ‘Nicaraguan Resistance’ and Sandinista soldiers respectively, and the Miskito YATAMA movement. The presence of these armed groups impeded the government from taking coer...

Abstract: SUMMARY Over 300 organizations support the Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative (Y2Y), an effort to ensure long-term protection for biodiversity in the “Northern Rockies” of the United States and Canada. Y2Y has been described as an organization, a coalition, a network, and other institutional designations. Alternatively, many characterize Y2Y as a “vision” for broad-based and long-term conservation in the Northern Rockies. After introducing the multifarious character of Y2Y, this article presents a summary overview of the high volume of favorable responses to the idea of Y2Y. This is followed by a more extensive review of vocal opposition to Y2Y. Judging from both widespread support for and backlash against Y2Y, there seems little doubt that the Y2Y vision has effectively posed a provocative challenge to traditional conceptions of land use and conservation in the Northern Rockies.

Abstract: Summary The crisis in the Great Lakes region has affected Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) since 1990, but its roots reach back into the colonial and pre-colonial past Decades of conflict in the region have affected livelihood strategies of local people and caused enormous population displacements, all of which have had impacts on the natural environment and protected area management Conservationists working to protect and effectively manage natural resources and protected areas have much to learn from the experience of humanitarian and relief organizations working in conflict situations In addition, relief and development organizations can learn from some of the approaches applied by conservation agencies In this paper, lessons from the experience of the humanitarian sector are analyzed and their value for conservation organizations working amidst political and armed crisis is examined This analysis draws upon the experience of the International Gorilla Conservation Programme (I

Abstract: Loggers play a critical role in managing forest resources. This study focused on understanding loggers' attitudes-information that we believe would be useful for improving communications and ultimately improving forest practices. Through interviews and a mail survey, four themes emerged, providing insight into loggers' attitudes: (1) Pennsylvania loggers are proud of their industry, (2) Public pressure is affecting the logging industry, (3) Loggers are concerned about the future, and (4) Loggers, foresters, and landowners need to improve their communications. Pennsylvania loggers are a diverse group possessing a wide range of attitudes. Listening to loggers is essential for achieving sustainable forestry.

Abstract: SUMMARY Bwindi Impenetrable National Park and the Virunga Volcano region are the last remaining habitats of the highly endangered mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei). This conservation area, shared by Uganda, Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo, also acts as a refuge for biodiversity and high endemism in the Albertine Rift of Central East Africa. This particular region has suffered from a number of years of civil strife, which have severely affected the management of these forests. This paper will explore the experiences of the International Gorilla Conservation Programme (IGCP) obtained throughout the development of regional processes that are working towards establishing a transboundary-protected area. The establishment of a regional framework and tools utilized are described. The costs and constraints incurred by the IGCP and the resulting positive impacts on conservation are also highlighted.

Abstract: Increasingly, landowners are establishing hardwood plantations to satisfy their land management goals. Unfortunately, little is known about how competition control affects initial seedling survival and subsequent investment returns for hardwood plantations. This study examines five alternative competition control regimes for southern oak establishment. The regimes include no site preparation, disking only, sub-soiling with rotary mowing, herbicides only, and herbicides with rotary mowing and sub-soiling. The analysis includes both before— and after-tax estimates of land expectation value (LEV) for comparing alternatives. Our results suggest that greater returns can be achieved for southern oak plantations in Mississippi during both good and bad rainfall years using herbicides only or herbicides with rotary mowing and sub-soiling for competition control. Applying intensive competition control during the first year yields after-tax LEVs of $577.64 to $691.66 per hectare despite precipitation levels...

Abstract: Selected microorganisms (Laccaria laccata, Trichoderma viride, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas corrugata and Azotobacter chroococcum) were used as inoculants to study their influence on seed germination, seedling survival and subsequent growth in Cedrus deodara. The microbial inoculations positively affected these parameters over control, in the following order: Azotobacter chroococcum Pseudomonas corrugata Bacillus subtilis Trichoderma viride Laccaria laccata.The major cause of seedling mortality was found to be (1) wilting of emerged seedlings by Fusarium oxysporum, and (2) cutworm attack. Bacterial inoculations were found to be superior in suppressing the proliferation of Fusariumsp., thereby enhancing seedling survival. One of the bacterial inoculants, B. subtilis, resulted in 76% seed germination, compared to 54% in control. Though inoculation with L. laccataresulted in maximum mycorrhizal infection (up to 72%) compared to48%in control seedlings, it afforded least protection against Fusariums...

Abstract: An analysis of watershed management in the Pacific slope of the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica, was conducted as part of a larger analysis of Conservation International's Amistad Conservation and Development (AMISCONDE) Initiative. General impacts of land use conversion are described with particular reference to tropical montane regions under conditions like those found on the Pacific slope of the Talamanca range. The quality of watershed management across the region and within the San Jeronimo-Zapotal watershed, one of the AMISCONDE Initiative sites, is evaluated. Significant problems are indicated regarding soil erosion, sedimentation, and agrochemical delivery to streams. These problems are likely due in part to the clearing of forest for cultivation on steep, highly erodable lands with little control over the location and construction of fields and associated infrastructure; a shift in land use from pasture to coffee cultivation and attendant increases in pesticide use; and unsafe pestic...

Abstract: SUMMARY On March 30 and 31 of 2001, the Yale chapter of the International Society of Tropical Foresters (Yale ISTF) convened scientists, managers, policy-makers, and community leaders for an interdisciplinary exploration of issues and challenges associated with the management of transboundary protected areas. Thirteen papers and four posters were presented at the conference held at the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies in New Haven, CT entitled Transboundary Protected Areas: The Viability of Regional Conservation Strategies. This brief introductory paper provides background concerning the goals and challenges put forth by the conference organizers. Conference participants were challenged to reconcile the seemingly “top-down” eco-regional and transboundary approaches to conservation with currently popular “bottom-up” approaches, to determine if lessons from community-based conservation and other local approaches could be applied to transboundary efforts. The papers contained within this vol...

Abstract: Conservation of species, protected areas, and natural resources requires appropriate problem-solving strategies. An interdisciplinary problem-solving strategy is introduced requiring users to ask and answer three basic questions about any management or policy process. Is it reasonable? Is it politically practical? And is it morally justified? Concepts needed to ask and answer these questions in an interdisciplinary way are given, explained, and illustrated using Baird's tapir in Costa Rica as an example. As well, problem solvers must understand and account for their own standpoint or role in conservation. Finally, users of this approach must integrate all their knowledge about these three questions and their standpoint into an overall judgment that they are willing to take conservation action on and responsibility for. Use of this interdisciplinary approach is expected to improve conservation process and outcomes.

Abstract: Qualitative research methods were used to assess the effectiveness of contract non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in the Philippines at providing services, using participatory methods, and building the capacity of community-based forest management (CBFM) groups. The analysis is based on data from four CBFM sites in the Philippines. The findings suggest that contract NGOs have varying degrees of effectiveness at delivering services, using and encouraging participatory methods, and helping build the capacity of CBFM groups. Because the CBFM program was new, it focused on relatively more straightforward technical and planning functions. The high number and technical difficulty of deliverables, coupled with lack of experience in resource management on the part of some contract NGOs, may have contributed to relatively lower performance in service delivery activities. Contract NGOs performed better in the area of participatory methods, reflecting their experience in grassroots and community developm...

Abstract: SUMMARY Efforts to protect land on an ecosystem scale have led to the creation of numerous transboundary protected areas, often called international peace parks. In some cases, the appropriate leadership, infrastructure, community support, and political and legal frameworks exist to achieve the objectives of a transboundary protected area, and to realize the benefits of transboundary management across national borders despite the inherent costs and risks involved. There is a danger, however, that regional conservation initiatives may be pursued in inappropriate situations or with strategies that do not respect the rights of local populations. The challenge is to determine under what conditions transboundary approaches might be appropriate and what factors can help us make these approaches more effective at achieving their site-specific goals. This paper synthesizes the experiences and perspectives of a diverse group of managers, social and natural scientists, consultants, local leaders and policy makers w...

Abstract: Pisolithus tinctorius(Pers.) Coker & Couch was evaluated as an ectomycorrhizal associate of sweet birch (Betula lentaL.). Sand culture and mine soil growth media were employed, and three fertilization treatments were imposed by application of differing Hoagland's nutrient solution #2 concentrations. The high fertilization treatment suppressed mycorrhizal formation by P. tinctoriusin both growth media, while the medium rather than the low treatment induced the most extensive colonization by this mycobiont. Seedlings with induced P. tinctoriusmycorrhization exhibited enhanced above— and below-ground growth according to shoot dimensions and dry weight and root weight and length. However, these responses were frequently absent with high fertilization, especially in the mine soil. Inoculated seedlings had higher foliar N, P, and K concentrations overall but lower Ca, Mg, and S concentrations than uninoculated seedlings. Those with P. tinctoriusalso had lower concentrations of several potentially phyto...

Abstract: Timothy W. Clark is Adjunct Professor at the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, New Haven, CT 06511. John Tuxill is a doctoral candidate in the Joint Program in Economic Botany, Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, New Haven, CT 06511, and the New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY. Mark S. Ashton is Professor of Silviculture and Forest Ecology at the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, New Haven, CT 06511. This assessment of the AMISCONDE project would not have been made possible without the generous organizational help of Manrique Rojas (MES 1998). The authors also would like to thank the staff of Conservation International, in particular Manuel Ramirez Umana, Luis Murillo and their colleagues in the Central American office, as well as Abbe Reis, Program Manager for Mexico and Central America, Conservation Interantional. They thank the various governement officials who gave so generously of their time–Francisco Morra Torres (MINAE), M.A. Robles Bermudez (MINAE), G. Ramirez Villegas (Instutute of Aqueducts and Sewers) and A. Rodriguez (University of Costa Rica). The authors would also like to thank the people of San Jeronimo, San Gerado and Zapotal for their openess and kindness at receiving them into their homes and involving them in their projects. Last but not least they thank Frederico Paredes, their tour guide and someone who helped them along on every part of the trip. They hope that this series of papers can make a contribution to the Conservation International effort protecting the biodiversity wealth of Central America.

Abstract: The agroforestry program of the AMISCONDE Initiative was implemented in 13 buffer zone communities of La Amistad Biosphere Reserve. This program introduced citrus (Citrus spp.) and promoted the widespread inclusion of poro (Erythrina poeppigiana) shade trees, ground story vegetation, and soil conservation techniques to the local cultivation of coffee (Coffea arabica var caturra). This program sought long-term socioeconomic and ecological health in these buffer zone communities through conservation and development projects such as coffee agroforestry systems. This paper examines the ecological and socioeconomic benefits of two introduced coffee agroforestry systems: coffee-poro and coffee-citrus. The project has decreased agrochemical inputs, integrated multi-strata vegetation, and implemented soil conservation techniques such as vetiver grass, cover crops, terraces, water channeling, and shade trees in an effort to sustainably manage coffee production on the steep buffer zone slopes. The agrofore...

Abstract: The technical capacity to analyze long-term timber sustained yield questions in the USA has never been stronger. The strongest applications have been for individual properties, on the one hand, and entire nations, on the other. Yet, serious concerns for Timber Sustained Yield (TSY) exist at the intermediate scale of states and regions. A formidable agenda of policy analysis and evaluation faces the forestry community. This paper discusses five policy options for “capping the cut” to achieve TSY: letting the market handle it, jawboning, log export bans, controls on mill capacity, and controls on cut at the landowner level. Corresponding to each option are questions of specific mechanisms for implementation, and which private or public actors should implement them. The approach of “letting the market handle it” is not a do-nothing option. In fact, the requirements for this option to be credible are quite stringent. At present in the USA, neither the detailed legal and policy knowledge nor the polit...

Abstract: SUMMARY Transboundary biodiversity conservation (TBC) is one of the most important components of emerging large-scale conservation approaches Nepal could provide a good example of effective TBC implementation Most of the protected areas and biodiversity hotspots of Nepal lie along the international boundaries with China and India and represent mainly two ecoregions-Alpine Shrubs and Meadows in the mountains and Tarai-Duar Savannas and Grassland in the lowland tarai Key management issues within these TBC sites include illegal hunting, or poaching, illegal trade of wildlife species and their products, commercial logging, illegal harvesting and smuggling of forest products, and transboundary migration and/or movement of wildlife species The main objective of this paper is to explore the issues, options and initiatives relating to TBC in Nepal Specifically, the paper will address (a) potential TBC sites, (b) major existing and emerging issues that demand TBC, and (c) possible mechanisms to address the is

Abstract: The AMISCONDE Initiative in Costa Rica and Panama was implemented through a partnership involving Conservation International, McDonald's Corporation, Clemson University, and later Texas A & M University. This paper provides an appraisal of the partnership using criteria established by Berry et al. (1995) and Berry and Dyer (1996). Results indicate that the AMISCONDE collaborators could improve the essential partnership elements of inclusiveness and communication. The establishment of a common vision and goals and the avoidance of “goal substitution” can help promote partnership success. I recommend that the AMISCONDE partnership and other similar efforts should seek to (1) increase inclusiveness by recognizing participating communities as partnership members; (2) fully utilize each partner's strengths to promote the common interest; (3) encourage communication with partnership members early on in the project to ensure vital components of the project are not overlooked; (4) make partnership endeav...

Abstract: SUMMARY Members of Eco Bolivia have watched the process of development and conservation unfold in northwestern Bolivia over the last 40 years or so. After a series of destructive development strategies, the indigenous people of northwestern Bolivia have shown great interest in moving towards sustainable development and conservation of the incredibly rich ecosystems of the area, especially in and around Madidi National Park. Madidi is the heart of a mosaic of protected areas and indigenous territories in Bolivia and Peru. The diversity of the region has attracted the attention of national and foreign governments, multilateral agencies, and international NGOs, all of whom claim a great interest in conservation, and usually emphasize the importance of working with local people toward the ultimate goal of self-management. However, over the years it has become clear that the government is much more interested in quick profits than in long-term sustainability, and powerful NGOs often pay only lip service to rea...

Abstract: Buffer zones serve as zones outside a protected area from which people can derive material or economic benefit, but which also provide wildlife habitat and ecosystem services. “Integrated conservation and development programs” (ICDPs) established in buffer zone communities promote sustainable patterns of economic development. However, they have been widely criticized for poor implementation. In this paper, I examine Conservation International's AMISCONDE program in Costa Rica as a case study of the role of ICDPs in buffer zones. The study suggests that varying and poorly defined conceptions of buffer zones among ICDP workers and participants can contribute to the failure of ICDPs to implement effective buffer zone-based conservation strategies. Alternative approaches to buffer zone delineation are examined. Recommendations include the clarification of competing buffer zone definitions; construction of a buffer zone definition that can be shared by all conservation participants in the region; and ...

Abstract: This presentation draws on the author’s assessment of seventeen transboundary protected areas in Southern Africa (see Griffin et al. 1999) and his continued discourse with transboundary practitioners around the world. In many places in southern Africa, people living near international borders have been practicing numerous forms of transboundary cooperation and management for a long time. It is THEIR local reality. TBNRM is essentially the co-operative or collaborative management of resources by a group of stakeholders on both sides of a boundary, who enter into various forms of partnerships with each other. The success of TBNRM depends on the extent to which stakeholders can establish and sustain effective partnerships. TBNRM can be a solid means to achieve “real benefits for real people” if there is a positive answer by stakeholders to the question “what is in it for me?” The value-added synergies of “going transboundary” have to outweigh the significant trans-