Abstract: Low-achieving adolescents are known to have difficulties with reading comprehension. This article discusses how reciprocal teaching can improve low-achieving adolescents' reading comprehension in whole-classroom settings (as opposed to small-group settings) and to what extent intervention effects are dependent on teacher behaviour. Over the course of 1 year, experimental teachers (n = 10) were given extensive training and coaching aimed at using principles of reciprocal teaching, while control teachers (n = 10) used their regular teaching method. Observations of teacher behaviour were focused on instruction of reading strategies, modelling and support of group work and were performed in both experimental and control classes, comprising a total of 369 students (mean age = 13.01). Our study shows that reciprocal teaching contributed to adolescent low achievers' reading comprehension only when experimental teachers provided high-quality strategy instruction. In addition, results suggest that the quality of implementation of reciprocal teaching in whole-classroom settings should receive more research attention. Highlights What is already known about this topic Reciprocal teaching is a method of instructing and guiding learners in reading comprehension. It consists of a set of three related instructional principles: (a) teaching comprehension-fostering reading strategies; (b) expert modelling, scaffolding and fading; and (c) students practising and discussing reading strategies with other students, guided and coached by the teacher. High quality of implementation of reciprocal teaching by teachers in classrooms is difficult. What this paper adds After 1 year of implementing reciprocal teaching, no main effects of the treatment were established. Intervention effects were moderated by quality of instruction: strategy instruction led to higher scores on reading comprehension in the treatment condition but not in the control condition. Implementation of the instructional principles was by no means optimal: teachers were unable to provide detailed guidance to students working in small groups and modelling of strategies requires more experience and theoretical insight in the use and nature of reading strategies. Implications for practice and/or policy Extensive training and coaching are needed for teachers to become experts in reciprocal teaching. Teachers need hands-on tools to be able to guide students in their collaborative group work and to fade the teachers' role in order to allow more individual self-regulation by students in their use of strategies. Implementation quality has to be taken into account when doing effectiveness research and when adopting new, theory-based didactic approaches.

Abstract: The present study examined gender gap in Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) Reading and mediators of the gender gap in a Finnish sample (n = 1,309). We examined whether the gender gap in PISA Reading performance can be understood via the effects of reading fluency, achievement behaviour (mastery orientation and task-avoidant behaviour) or the amount of time spent with leisure reading and homework. Girls outperformed boys in all measures except for achievement behaviour. The models explaining PISA Reading were not different: For boys and girls, reading fluency, mastery orientation, leisure book reading and homework explained the variance in PISA Reading scores. The gender effect on PISA Reading was, however, for the most part mediated by differences in reading fluency. These findings suggest that while mastery orientation, homework activity and leisure book reading are concurrent predictors of PISA Reading over and above reading fluency, they do not explain gender difference.

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine what components of executive function (EF) – inhibition, shifting and updating/working memory – predict reading comprehension in young adults. Ninety university students (65 females, 25 males; mean age = 21.82 years) were assessed on shifting (Planned Connections and Colour/Shape Shifting), inhibition (Colour-Word Stroop and Number Stroop), updating/working memory (Digit Memory and Listening Span), reading fluency (Word Reading Efficiency), vocabulary (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test), and reading comprehension (Nelson-Denny Reading Test). The results of path analysis indicated that only shifting predicted directly reading comprehension. These findings extend those of previous studies showing that different EF components predict different reading outcomes and suggest that EF has a place in reading comprehension models over and above traditional predictors of reading comprehension such as reading fluency and vocabulary.

Abstract: Assessment of text readability is important for assigning texts at the appropriate level to readers at different proficiency levels. The present research approached readability assessment from the lexical perspective of word frequencies derived from corpora assumed to reflect typical language experience. Three studies were conducted to test how the word-level feature of word frequency can be aggregated to characterise text-level readability. The results show that an effective use of word frequency for text readability assessment should take a range of characteristics of the distribution of words frequencies into account. For characterizing text readability, taking into account the standard deviation in addition to the mean word frequencies already significantly increases results. The best results are obtained using the mean frequencies of the words in language frequency bands or in bands obtained by agglomerative clustering of the word frequencies in the documents – though a comparison of within-corpus and cross-corpus results shows the limited generalizability of using high numbers of fine-grained frequency bands. Overall, the study advances our understanding of the relationship between word frequency and text readability and provides concrete options for more effectively making use of lexical frequency information in practice.

Abstract: This investigation examined developmental aspects of 155 second-graders' intrinsic reading motivation and reading achievement at the beginning and end of a school year. Reading motivation remained at the same level through the school year, while reading achievement was significantly higher at the end of it than at the beginning. According to word reading skills, low reading achievers (n = 63) and typical readers (n = 92) evinced significant differences in reading motivation. The former scored lower in overall reading motivation and self-concept as a reader, as well as in reading achievement. Throughout the school year, low reading achievers showed a decline in overall motivation, self-concept as a reader and literacy outloud, and did not improve in reading comprehension achievement. Reading motivation in typical readers remained high and steady during the school year. Implications of the results are discussed in relation to previous studies.

Abstract: Individual differences in motivational beliefs, such as writing efficacy and attitudes toward writing in different contexts (academic, recreational, print or digital), are hypothesised to account for variability in writing performance. This study tested this proposition with 185 middle school students (58% were male), examining if writing self‐efficacy and attitudes toward writing made a statistically significant and unique contribution to predicting performance on a norm‐referenced writing measure, after variance related to gender, free/reduced lunch status, student's first language, disability status, reading self‐efficacy and attitudes toward reading were first controlled. Collectively, writing attitudes and self‐efficacy accounted for statistically significant and unique variance in writing scores after the other variables were controlled, providing support for the theoretical proposition that writing motivational beliefs are important ingredients in middle school students' writing.

Abstract: Background. A cost-effective method to address reading delays is to use computer-assisted learning, but these are not always effective. Methods. We evaluated a commercially available computer system which uses visual mnemonics, in a randomised controlled trial with 78 English speaking children (mean age 7;7 years) who their schools identified as needing reading support. School based individual tutorials usually took place 2-3 times/week. Only the experimental group received the intervention in the first 10 months, thereafter both the experimental and control groups received the intervention for 6 months. Results. After 10 months the experimental group had significantly higher standardised scores than the waiting list control group of decoding, phonological awareness, naming speed, phonological short-term memory and executive loaded working memory. Conclusions. The computer-assisted intervention was effective and this suggests that this medium can be used for reading interventions with English speaking children.

Abstract: Predictors of early word reading are well established. However, it is unclear if these predictors hold for readers across a range of word reading abilities. This study used quantile regression to investigate predictive relationships at different points in the distribution of word reading. Quantile regression analyses used preschool and kindergarten measures of letter knowledge, phonological awareness, rapid automatised naming, sentence repetition, vocabulary and mother’s education to predict first-grade word reading. Predictors generally varied in significance across levels of word reading. Notably, rapid automatised naming was a significant unique predictor for average and good readers but not poor readers. Letter knowledge was generally a stronger unique predictor for poor and average readers than good readers. Well-known word reading predictors varied in significance at different points along the word read- ing distribution. Results have implications for early identification and statistical analyses of reading-related outcomes.

Abstract: The present study examined children's digital text comprehension of digital text types linear digital text vs hypertext, with or without graphical navigable overviews. We investigated to what extent individual variation in children's comprehension could be explained by lexical quality (word reading efficiency and vocabulary knowledge), cognitive load factors (prior knowledge and working memory), text type and graphical overview. Participants were 93 sixth graders in a within-subject design. Word reading efficiency, vocabulary knowledge and prior knowledge predicted children's digital comprehension scores, while working memory did not. Reading comprehension was equal for linear text or hypertext. However, the presence of an overview facilitated reading comprehension for readers with lower prior knowledge. It can be concluded that hypertexts with basic digital text features and accompanying comprehension questions are not more difficult for children than linear digital texts, that similar individual factors predict reading comprehension of linear text and hypertext, and that a graphical overview helps when prior knowledge is low.

Abstract: This study investigates the within- and cross-language relations between orthographic processing and spelling for children learning to read in languages that share the same Roman script: namely, English and French. We examined these relations in a group of 152 children attending grade 1 in a French immersion program. Measures of English and French lexical orthographic processing (e.g., dream-dreem; jaune-jeaune) as well as English and French spelling were administered. Control measures included nonverbal ability, English phonological awareness, as well as rapid automatised naming, vocabulary, and word reading in English and French. We found a within-language relation between orthographic processing and spelling in each of English and French. Cross-language transfer from French orthographic processing to English spelling was also observed; there were no relations in the other direction. Our results suggest that orthographic processing is important for spelling development among bilingual children learning English and French. What is already known about this topic: Orthographic processing plays an important role in monolingual children's word reading and spelling Orthographic processing in one language is significantly related to word reading in the other language in bilingual children who are acquiring languages that share the same script The extent to which orthographic processing is related to spelling is not clear in bilingual children What this paper adds: Orthographic processing contributes to spelling within English and French in a novel group of bilingual children in French immersion Orthographic processing in French transfers to spelling in English The direction of cross-language transfer of orthographic processing to spelling occurs from the more consistent orthography to the less consistent one Implications for theory, policy, or practice: Cross-language transfer of orthographic processing may be due to shared orthographic structures and common underlying processes involved in extracting orthographic information in English and French The educational context in which second language is acquired may play an important role in spelling development in both English and French French immersion educators should highlight similarities in orthographic conventions in English and French during literacy instruction to facilitate spelling development

Abstract: The growing number of students whose primary language does not match the language of their schools and a steadily growing performance gap has prompted widespread attention to support emergent literacy gains for those students. This study randomly assigned schools in a Southwestern U.S. state with English language learners (ELLs) in kindergarten and first grade to an experimental computer-assisted instruction (CAI) condition or a ‘business as usual’ control. The study tracked ELLs performance over one academic year using a nationally normed standardised reading test. The results demonstrated first-grade students in the experimental condition demonstrated greater gains compared with the control students in the domains of vocabulary, phonics, phonological awareness and text comprehension. Gains for kindergarten were less consistent; however, the lowest language proficient students using CAI experienced greater gains in vocabulary when compared with controls. Results extend prior studies targeting ELL students' reading skill development with targeted CAI interventions. What is already known about this topic English language learners (ELLs) face additional struggles in gaining literacy proficiency in the early grades. Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) programs support learning for non-ELLs, provided the instructional materials target specific literacy needs directly. Efficacy of CAIs (and any instructional program) is dependent upon the match between learner needs, classroom curriculum and programmatic features. What this paper adds Large randomised control trial testing the effects of a CAI on ELL literacy development in kindergarten and first-grade students. Measures of progressive learner development in critical literacy skills using a nationally normed measure of reading achievement. Explicit attention to the levels of language proficiency intersecting with the use of the CAI to identify interaction effects Implications for theory, policy or practice Computer-assisted instruction support for second language learners can be effective for targeted literacy gains, provided the program materials support critical literacy needs. Use of CAI may be instrumental to support emergent literacy given the ability to capitalise on the proposed pedagogical interventions for second language learners. Stress the importance of maintaining attention to the existing language skills of second language learners when examining the efficacy of literacy interventions.

Abstract: Background Disruptions of reading processes due to text substitutions can measure how readers use lexical information. Methods With eye-movement recording, children and adults viewed sentences with either identical, orthographically similar, homophonic or unrelated substitutions of the first characters in target words. To the extent that readers rely on orthographic or phonological cues, substitutions that contain such cues should cause less disruption reading than do unrelated substitutions. Results On pretarget words, there was a reliable reduction in gaze duration due to homophonic substitution only for children. On target words, we observed reliable recovery effects due to orthographic similarity for adults. On post-target words, adults had better orthographic-based and phonological-based recovery abilities than children. Conclusions The combination of eye movement recording and the error detection paradigm offers a novel implicit paradigm for studying reading development: during sentence reading, beginning readers of Chinese may rely on phonological mediation, while skilled readers have more direct access to semantics from orthography. Highlights What is already known about this topic There is little evidence for early phonological activation during the reading of Chinese sentences among skilled Chinese readers There is a rich body of evidence supporting the view that phonological information is activated very early in alphabetic scripts, as indexed by shorter fixation durations when useful phonological information is present. What this paper adds Chinese beginning readers have early parafoveal activation of phonology during the silent reading of Chinese sentences, as indexed by the parafovea-on-fovea effect in the homophonic substitution condition. The early activation of phonology diminishes with the development of reading skills. Implications for theory, policy or practice The phonological parafovea-on-fovea effect was revealed during the silent reading of Chinese sentences for beginning readers. Chinese children may rely on phonological codes while skilled readers have more direct access to semantics from orthography. The teaching of phonological aspects of Chinese orthography is very important for beginning readers

Abstract: How do native Chinese-speaking (CS) and non-Chinese-speaking (NCS) children learn to read and write in Chinese? In the present study, 29 CS and 34 NCS second and third graders aged 76 to 122 months (M = 93.65) participated in an experiment where they were taught 16 new Chinese characters in one of four conditions – copy, radical, phonological and look–say. Results showed that the copying condition best facilitated writing of Chinese characters for both groups, whereas radical knowledge facilitated only CS children's writing. NCS children benefited more from the phonological condition than from the look–say condition in learning to read Chinese. These results highlight the effectiveness of copying practice for all children learning to write Chinese. However, approaches to reading and writing Chinese may differ somewhat depending on the Chinese background knowledge of the children as well. Teaching children Chinese should be geared towards the strengths of different groups for learning.

Abstract: Previous U.K. population-based studies have found associations amongst early speech and language difficulties, socioeconomic disadvantage and children's word-reading ability later on. We examine the strength of these associations in a recent U.K. population-based birth cohort. Analyses were based on 13,680 participants. Linear regression models were fitted to identify factors that were associated with word-reading score at the age of 7 years. Path analysis models were fitted to examine phonological skills as a mediator of the relationships. We found that male gender, preterm birth, naming vocabulary at age five, concerns about speech and language, maternal education, type of housing tenure, lone parenting, parent attachment and frequency of reading to the child were all independently associated with word reading. For each of these predictors, there was evidence suggesting that a substantial proportion of the effect may be mediated by phonological skills (ranging from 52 to 89%). Despite policy intervention, many of the same risk factors identified in previous studies still predict children's word-reading ability in the United Kingdom. Results support the phonological model, with phonological skills on the pathway to word reading.

Abstract: Students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds in Australia have persistently performed at relatively low levels in national and international tests of reading literacy. Research attention is required to look for new models to promote reading and reading engagement for disadvantaged students. The current study discussed a case study derived from a practice‐based research project that aims to develop reformative practices to engage disadvantaged students to read. A special feature of this practice‐based research is the promotion of student voice to inform the development of engaging reading practices through partnerships between teachers and students and the endorsement of student input. Based on a rich data set, including teacher interviews, a series of classroom observations, meeting records and student interviews, a case study of one teacher and her class was developed to illustrate how student voice has been used to promote reading engagement through a practice‐based reform process.

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine how background knowledge of a topic may influence children's attention to different elements of storybook illustrations and how that influences word learning. Forty-one kindergarten students were administered a test about a familiar topic (i.e., birds). Participants were then read either a fictional story about a familiar topic (birds) or a fictional story about a novel topic (wugs) on an eye-tracker monitor. Results suggest that, for children who heard the familiar story, those who knew more about the category were faster to orient to the illustration of the novel word than children with lower background knowledge. Accordingly, children who were faster to orient to the illustration were more likely to learn the word. These results may suggest that one mechanism by which background knowledge improves implicit learning in shared-book reading contexts is by guiding attention to the named elements of the illustrations.

Abstract: The present research explored the awareness that readers have of the difficulty of negative text and aimed to determine whether rereading could impact comprehension and metacomprehension. Participants read passages that sometimes contained negative words such as ‘no’ and ‘not’, rated their comprehension, and answered a comprehension question about the passage. Half of the passages were read twice and rated again before the participant was prompted to answer a comprehension question. Results showed that passages that were read twice were rated as easier to understand, and questions that corresponded with those passages were answered with higher accuracy as well. However, these improvements were not exclusive to negated passages. And, while participants were aware that the negative passages were harder to comprehend, this understanding did not aid in heightened comprehension of the negative text. Rereading was demonstrated to be a helpful strategy overall but was not sufficient to specifically help with negation.

Abstract: Background The lexical quality hypothesis proposes that successful reading comprehension requires high quality lexical representations, which allow for efficient retrieval. These retrieval operations have however not been specified. Methods We investigated the contribution of semantic retrieval to reading comprehension in 119 Dutch children in the upper grades of primary school, while taking decoding skills and vocabulary size into account in a longitudinal design. By using verbal fluency tasks, we measured retrieval in line with the structural organisation of the mental lexicon and additionally, a more controlled search through the mental lexicon. Results Semantic retrieval assessed in grade 5 accounted for variance in reading comprehension in grade 6, in addition to variance accounted for by vocabulary size and reading comprehension in grade 5. Conclusions The ability to search through the mental lexicon, along the lines of its hierarchical structure, is important for children's reading comprehension development in the upper primary grades.

Abstract: Efficient Chinese character reading requires rapid access to orthographic representations of radical form and position This study identified the temporal sequence of radical form, radical position and lexicality processing in adult first language (L1) and intermediate second language (L2) Chinese readers Event-related potential responses in a one-back repetition detection task were submitted to linear mixed-effects models Violation of radical position produced P100 effects that were left-lateralized for L1 readers and right-lateralized for L2 readers When controlling for P100 activation, radical position produced a left-lateralized effect at the N170 for L2 readers but no additional activities for L1 readers Radical form effects were found at the N270 for L1 readers, where radical form violation produced larger N270 Results suggested that radical representations are position-specific in initial orthographic processing for both groups However, different temporal dynamics and topographic distributions suggested divergent radical processing for native versus non-native readers from the beginning