Abstract: Exposure to altered conductivity can negatively impact many freshwater system inhabitants, including bacteria, plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates. Several studies have shown increased conductivity to affect amphibian behavior and ecology. Comparatively fewer studies have taken a physiological approach to understanding the effects of altered conductivity in amphibians. This study used laboratory experiments to assess conductivity effects on stress hormone (corticosterone) levels in Jefferson Salamander (Ambystoma jeffersonianum), Wood Frog (Rana sylvatica), and Gray Treefrog (Hyla versicolor) larvae. Prey consumption (only in A. jeffersonianum) and survival (in all species) also was examined after exposure to increased conductivity (0, 2,000, 4,000, and 8,000 ppb). There was a significant positive effect of increased conductivity exposure on baseline corticosterone levels in A. jeffersonianum after 1-week exposure. Exposure to increased conductivity did not influence baseline corticosterone le...

Abstract: Understanding the spatial ecology of species at risk is essential for conservation because this information forms the base from which management and recovery plans are delineated. We studied microhabitat selection and evaluated the effect of reproductive class on daily movement patterns, home ranges, and seasonal activity of Blanding's Turtles in the St. Lawrence Islands National Park, Ontario, Canada. We also consider the potential conservation/management ramifications of differences in habitat use between the reproductive classes. We monitored 38 Blanding's Turtles (20 males, 13 gravid females, and 5 nongravid females) from April 2008 to August 2009 via radiotelemetry. Reproductive class did not have a significant effect on the mean daily movement of turtles in May, July, and August. In June, however, gravid females moved significantly more (mean = 400 ± 49 m per day) than males (mean = 194 ± 22 m per day). Reproductive class also had a significant effect on turtle home-range size, although...

Abstract: We validated the diagnostic tests for the high-profile disease, chytridiomycosis, in wild amphibian populations. We compared histological samples with a Taqman real time quantitative PCR (qPCR) test in five species of frogs at different times of the year at six locations in the wet tropics of northern Queensland. The sensitivity and specificity of each test were estimated using prior estimates from previous laboratory studies and Bayesian methods. The qPCR test was almost three times as sensitive 72.9% (62.7–82.2%) than histology 26.5% (19.9–33.9%) but was less specific 94.2% (89.3–98.6%) than histology 99.5% (98.4–100%), which was likely caused by contamination. Monitoring of the negative control success rate of the qPCR test is potentially a good indicator of specificity. It is likely that using individual gloves for handling amphibians reduces cross-contamination and, therefore, improves specificity rather than cause inhibition of the qPCR. Classifying indeterminate results as positive will increase the qPCR test sensitivity but will lower specificity to a lesser degree depending on the likelihood of contamination. Although PCR is the preferred test for amphibian populations, histology is useful when wishing to confirm a diagnosis of infection and in situations where observing the severity of infection and pathology in skin is desired. In this study, we show that diagnostic test validation in wild animals is now relatively straight forward using modern computing power and can incorporate prior knowledge generated from laboratory studies using Bayesian approaches.

Abstract: Caiman latirostris (Broad-Snouted Caiman) is widely distributed in wetlands and rivers of South America. Hematological and blood chemistry reference values are necessary for detecting the effects of environmental, infectious, parasitic, or toxicological stress on C. latirostris health. Peripheral blood samples were obtained from 24 healthy 6- to 18-month-old caimans. Blood cell dimensions and cytochemistry profiles were described; and reference intervals for hematological parameters, enzyme activities, and clinical analytes were established. Based on the caiman mass frequency distribution, two classes were distinguished: 125–900 g and 901–3,100 g. Although an overlap in age ranges was observed, total length and snout–vent length range values from both mass classes differed. This finding is particularly useful because, in the wild, caiman age is unknown, whereas growth parameters can be easily recorded. Caiman blood cells exhibited morphological features similar to those of other reptiles, with ly...

Abstract: Invasive species are a major threat to biodiversity and economic interests, with many introductions resulting from actions of people involved in pet and ornamental plant businesses. Invasive species eventually end up in the care of the general public, with most costs born by society rather than businesses or owners: a classic economic externality. Although standard economic instruments used to address externalities are useful, they require considerable extension in this case. Simple taxation of the trade has been suggested and can reduce the volume of trade, but taxes do little to discipline the riskiest actors in the market. Using reptiles and amphibians as our focus, we provide an outline for a mechanism addressing invasive species issues, focusing primarily on the local level. We propose to collect funds from the trade and apply them specifically to support (1) a national resource center offering information and training; (2) programs to professionalize local education and response teams, focu...

Abstract: We describe a new forest skink species of the genus Sphenomorphus based on specimens from northern Vietnam and from Hainan Island, southern China. The new species is differentiated from the congeners by the combination of the following characters: size small (SVL 35.8–48.8 mm); prefrontals in contact with each other mesially; supralabials seven; primary temporals two; external ear opening present, without lobules, tympanum slightly sunk; midbody scales in 32–34 rows; dorsal scales smooth, paravertebral scales 65–72, not widened; limbs well developed, pentadactyl; 15–19 smooth lamellae under fourth toe; free margins of upper and lower eyelids edged in white; neck, dorsum, and tail base bronze-brown with a discontinuous dark vertebral stripe; upper lateral zone black, interrupted by small light spots from behind the neck. In addition, we provide a review of Vietnamese Sphenomorphus with the first country record of Sphenomorphus mimicus. The generic allocation of Sphenomorphus devorator (allocated t...

Abstract: Brachycephalus didactylus, a leaf litter frog endemic to the Brazilian Atlantic rain forest, is considered the world's smallest tetrapod. Currently, there is little information about the ecology of this species. In this study, we estimated the population density and analyzed the diet, sexual dimorphism, and some reproductive aspects of two populations of B. didactylus in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. The estimated density was 4.0 and 1.2 ind/100m2, suggesting that this is not a locally rare species. However, collecting these frogs may be difficult because of their very small body size (< 11.0 mm SVL) and cryptic color pattern. Individuals from the two populations did not differ in body size, but females from one population were significantly larger than were males. In both populations, the most important food items consumed were Acari and Collembola, most of them measuring less than 1.0 mm in length. Females of the two populations had 3.6 ± 1.3 and 2.5 ± 0.8 mature oocytes averaging 1.6 ± 0.5 mm ...

Abstract: Larval amphibians are increasingly being reared for conservation initiatives to bolster declining populations. Few researchers, however, have asked whether reared individuals are functionally equivalent to their wild counterparts. Compared with those in the wild, amphibians reared in captivity may develop in relatively stress-free environments, because they are usually fed ad libitum, raised in the absence of predators and pathogens and in controlled environments. Thus, with few challenges throughout development, would their resting stress levels or reactions to acute stressors be normal? We addressed this question by rearing Litobates sphenocephalus and Ambystoma opacum from eggs and 10-day-old larvae through to late larval stages in artificial pond environments and by determining their ratios of neutrophils (N) to lymphocytes (L) (two leukocytes that covary with stress hormones) before and after a standardized stressor. We obtained similar samples from wild-caught larvae of equivalent developme...

Abstract: The acoustic structure of 18 male advertisement calls of the “music frog” (Babina daunchina), indigenous to the Emei mountain area of Sichuan province in southwest China was analyzed. Previous results showed that Babina typically call from within hidden burrows made by the males and must rely strongly on acoustic information for mate choice. Functioning ecologically as nests, burrows are used for mating, egg-laying, and pre- and postembryonic development. Male Babina calls are spectrally and temporally complex consisting of a sequence of 3–8 notes. Each note consists of a stack of frequency bands, which are nearly integer multiples of the fundamental residue. For all calls the fundamental frequency of successive notes increases monotonically. Moreover, there is a negative correlation between the lowest harmonic (F0) value of the first call note and the increments in fundamental frequency between notes in the same call, implying that constraints exist in the production mechanism. Hierarchical clus...

Abstract: Although the treefrog Hypsiboas albopunctatus (Spix, 1824) (Anura: Hylidae) is abundant in South America, especially in regions of open vegetation in Brazil, information regarding its natural history is still scarce. This study describes its ecology including aspects of microhabitat use, population dynamics, diet, and reproduction in the Cerrado biome of central Brazil. We used model selection to test hypotheses of variation in survival and recapture rates as a function of differences in sex, seasonality, and climatic variables. We also tested hypotheses regarding sexual dimorphism. This species uses mainly herbaceous vegetation and bushes along margins of the ponds. Apparent survival, estimated using the Cormack-Jolly-Seber mark-recapture model, was higher for males than females and was negatively correlated with rainfall. Recapture probability was influenced by seasonality, presenting higher values in the wet season. This highlights the influence of weather, especially seasonal rainfall, on the...

Abstract: Janthinobacterium lividum, a bacterium that inhibits the growth of the lethal amphibian pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, has been found in myriad environments, including the skins of amphibians that resist the fungus. We present evidence that the gastrointestinal tract of Plethodon cinereus, the Eastern Red-backed Salamander, can serve as a reservoir for J. lividum. Two of six individuals collected from a natural environment harbored J. lividum in the gut tube. Violacein, whose intense violet color allows for rapid visual detection and chemical analysis, served as a first indicator for the presence of J. lividum. This secondary metabolite of J. lividum was confirmed through reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography, UV-Vis analysis, and high-resolution mass spectrometry. The identity of J. lividum was confirmed by PCR amplification with J. lividum-specific primers of DNA extracted from the isolated bacteria. Because J. lividum survives in the digestive tract, it will likely be inoculated onto skin around the cloaca and into the soil and indirectly onto salamander skins. Thus, the gut may act as an important reservoir for this antifungal bacterium.

Abstract: Clay models have been used to investigate the relative antipredator effectiveness of cryptic and of aposematic coloration in litter frogs, but such studies do not account for possible differences in prey escape behavior. We examined the escape behaviors of two litter frogs, the cryptic Craugastor bransfordii and the brightly colored and toxic Oophaga pumilio, in response to a human predator. For all individuals, we measured the distance between the frog and the observer at the instant of flight and the distance between frog's initial and final positions in the field. The cryptic C. bransfordii had a shorter flight initiation distance than did nonvocalizing individuals of the brightly colored O. pumilio. In addition, we noted that vocalizing O. pumilio males had a shorter flight initiation distance than did either nonvocalizing male or female O. pumilio. These findings demonstrate that a cryptic and an aposematic litter frog differ in their escape response to a predator. These results also suggest...

Abstract: Chemical contamination and physical alteration of the environment can separately or in combination cause changes in the abundance and diversity of amphibian species. However, these factors are typically considered in isolation using experiments focused on single life stages. We examined the terrestrial performance (i.e., growth, survival) of Southern Leopard Frog (Rana sphenocephala) juveniles that had been chronically exposed to one of three initial concentrations of the heavy metal cadmium (0, 5, or 18 µg Cd/L) as aquatic larvae. Juveniles were reared in terrestrial enclosures within deciduous forest and open field habitats through their first growth season (summer to autumn). The effect of cadmium (Cd) on terrestrial survival depended on habitat type; survival increased with Cd concentration in the field enclosures and decreased with Cd concentration in the forest enclosures. Terrestrial survival was 73% in the forest enclosures and 54% in the field enclosures, but the difference was not signi...

Abstract: Studies of species coexistence within communities and food webs depend on knowing how species use varying resources. Diet has been asserted as a partitioned resource and an important proxy for measuring ecological similarity between species. Diet, like any aspect of an organism's ecology, varies over space and time, which may diminish the generality of conclusions made about how species interact. Few studies have examined diet variation across two or more dimensions, but here we evaluate diet variation over space and time for four lizard species within the genus Ctenotus (Scincidae). Samples were collected at three field sites in the Great Victoria Desert of Western Australia over the course of 16 years. Diet varies widely over both space and time. However, changes in diet over time overwhelm variation over space at the scale of our study. Despite diet variation within species, distinct differences exist between species in fundamental and realized dietary niche space. Limited overlap between spec...

Abstract: We investigated the taxonomic status of the Indian forms of the Dendrelaphis pictus (Gmelin, 1789) group on the basis of multivariate analyses of morphological data taken from 176 museum specimens and two living specimens. A geographically isolated form from the Western Ghats, southwest India, is described as a new species. The subspecies Dendrelaphis pictus andamanensis (Anderson, 1871), an endemic from the Andaman Islands, is given specific status. Finally, the population of D. pictus from Indochina and northeast India, although superficially homogeneous, is shown to be comprised of two morphologically distinct forms. These forms are distributed parapatrically with a transition near the northern and northwestern borders of Indochina. The two forms are considered to represent distinct evolutionary lineages. The name Dendrelaphis proarchos (Wall, 1909) is revalidated to represent the northwestern form. The southeastern form is referred to as D. pictus (Gmelin, 1789). Whether intergradation betwee...

Abstract: We describe the diet of a Liolaemus cuyanus population from the Monte of San Juan Province in Argentina. Diet composition, trophic niche breadth, age, sexual, and seasonal variation were analyzed. In addition, we investigated the relationship between L. cuyanus morphology and size of prey consumed. From the stomach contents of 105 lizards, we found that L. cuyanus is an omnivore, feeding mainly on ants, hemipterans, coleopterans (larvae and adults), and reproductive plant structures (seeds, fruits, and flowers) of the genera Lycium, Atriplex, Larrea, and Portulaca. We observed differences between juvenile and adult diets, probably associated with body- and head-size restrictions. Conversely, sexes did not differ in diet, in spite of head- and body-size sexual dimorphism. Seasonal variation in diet was observed in juveniles, whereas adults did not show substantial seasonal changes in the diet. Our findings show that L. cuyanus is opportunistic in diet and that diet appears to vary depending on age...

Abstract: Recent literature on foraging in Hawksbill Sea Turtles in the Caribbean region concludes that prey selectivity is a combination of preference for certain prey species and their local abundance. In this study, prey selectivity patterns were measured in five juvenile Hawksbill Sea Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) aggregations in the Culebra Archipelago, Puerto Rico, and the hypothesis that juvenile Hawksbill Sea Turtles exhibit selectivity for certain prey items independent of their environmental availability was tested. Hawksbill Sea Turtles showed positive selection for the corallimorph Ricordea florida, which was rare in all four study sites, and for the alga Lobophora variegata, that was abundant in one site. Turtles exhibited low preference for the sponge Chondrilla nucula, the most common prey item in both diet samples and the environment at all study sites. Low preference for this sponge corresponds to its high availability in the environment. Turtles also exhibited low preference for the spo...

Abstract: Ephemeral, fishless wetlands with open canopies are known to be quality breeding habitats for pond-breeding amphibians. Yet many wetlands including these are commonly invaded by exotic plants, resulting in vegetation shifts from diverse native vegetation to monotypic stands of novel material. I tested the hypothesis that an invasive grass, reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea), would reduce survival, growth, and development rates of four tadpole species relative to a mixture of native grasses. I manipulated grass type and amount in fully replicated mesocosm experiments that contained American Toads (Anaxyrus americanus), Cope's Gray Treefrogs (Hyla chrysoscelis), Pickerel Frogs (Lithobates palustris), or Wood Frogs (Lithobates sylvatica). Counter to expectations, I found little evidence that diverse vegetation enhanced wetland quality for amphibians, because the quantity of decomposing plant matter influenced tadpole performance more than type of plant matter. Growth and development of tadpole...

Abstract: We examined the systematics of two frequently confused Albertine Rift endemic treefrogs, Leptopelis karissimbensis and Leptopelis kivuensis. One mitochondrial (16S) and one nuclear (BDNF) gene were sequenced to demonstrate genetic differences between the two species. Although we did not find morphometric differences between the two taxa, several characters can be used to diagnose each species, including coloration (adult male throat), ventral pigmentation, presence/absence of a slight heel spur in large individuals, and male advertisement calls. The geographic distribution of each species is revised based on our new locality records and reconsideration of historical records from the literature. We recommend that L. karissimbensis be downgraded in conservation status to near threatened, because it does not meet the IUCN restricted geographic distribution criteria of an endangered species.

Abstract: Quantifying and comparing habitat selection of related, syntopic species may help elucidate how species partition resources and compete. The Florida Bog Frog (Lithobates okaloosae) is endemic to northwestern Florida and is syntopic with the more widely distributed Bronze Frog (Lithobates clamitans clamitans). Our objective was to determine whether these closely related frogs selected different microhabitat characteristics at male calling sites, which in turn may influence successful reproduction or survival. From 2006 to 2008, we quantified microhabitat characteristics of male calling sites used by both species on Eglin Air Force Base, Florida. We created a suite of a priori models and used paired logistic regression to assess each species' habitat selection. Further, we compared habitat characteristics from each species' most highly supported model to directly compare habitat use. Model selection indicated that calling sites for L. okaloosae were best described by habitat features related to mic...

Abstract: We describe a new species of Luperosaurus from the Luzon faunal region, northern Philippines. The new species is most similar to, and has long been confused with, Luperosaurus cumingii from Luzon Island but differs from this and all other Luperosaurus by numerous characters of scalation, color pattern, and a suite of variables related to its small body size. The new species has been recorded at four localities along the eastern seaboard of Luzon and on Camiguin Norte, a small island just northeast of Luzon; it may also occur on Polillo and Lubang Islands. Data from our recent survey work suggest that some Luperosaurus species may be adapted to low elevation, coastal forest and that these species may now be encountered rarely now because this habitat type is so severely imperiled by centuries of deforestation and near complete development of virtually all Philippine coastlines.

Abstract: Species that exhibit extreme traits can provide valuable insight into the evolution of those traits Bitis schneideri has the smallest body size of all vipers, reportedly reaching a maximum length of 254 mm We studied size, sexual size dimorphism, and growth in a population of B schneideri from the Northern Cape Province, South Africa to better understand these traits in the smallest viperid We weighed and measured 285 snakes (124 males, 101 females, 60 juveniles) over three austral summers We recorded a maximum body length of 251 mm and body mass of 38 g Mean adult female body length (2074 ± 276 mm) was longer than mean adult male body length (1916 ± 202 mm) As predicted, female snakes were heavier bodied than males of the same length, had shorter tails, and had relatively larger heads Growth rate was rapid and did not appear to differ among the sexes Individuals reach mean adult body length in approximately 22 years, and male snakes are likely to reach reproductively mature size in

Abstract: Bokermannohyla is one of the five genera included in the recently recognized tribe Cophomantini, of the hylid frog subfamily Hylinae. Although karyotypic diversity is relatively well known in two genera of Cophomantini, Aplastodiscus and Hypsiboas, in Bokermannohyla chromosome data are restricted to only two of its 28 species. In this paper, we describe the karyotypes of 12 species of Bokermannohyla using standard staining, Ag-NOR, C-banding, DAPI, CMA3, and BrdU incorporation. The 12 species share a similar diploid karyotype with 2n = 24 biarmed chromosomes; most observed differences involved the NOR-bearing chromosomes (and the NOR position within these chromosomes) and C-banding patterns. The overall similarity of these karyotypes with those of Aplastodiscus and Hypsiboas widens the notion of remarkable morphological homogeneity among Cophomantini karyotypes. The results obtained thus far are promising for comparative studies on the genus Bokermannohyla and, in a wider sense, will allow a be...

Abstract: In South Africa, particularly Gauteng Province, populations of the large, explosive-breeding Giant Bullfrog (Pyxicephalus adspersus) are suffering increasing habitat loss due to encroaching urbanization. To investigate the spatial habitat requirements of this regionally threatened species, 70 adult frogs were radio- or spool-tracked during five summers around a periurban breeding site. Male and female P. adspersus moved a maximum overnight distance of 350 m when returning to their burrows postspawning. On average, animals of either sex used one long-term burrow (LTB) in a summer. Four males each used a single LTB or burrowing area for two or three consecutive summers. The LTBs of females were situated almost 4 times further (mean = 446.8 m) from the seasonal dams where spawning occurred than those of males (mean = 131.0 m). Female body condition was significantly positively correlated with distance of their burrows from the seasonal dams (rs = 0.77). Limited evidence indicated that adult P....

Abstract: Amphibians show strong dependence on environmental variables (water balance, temperature). However, interactions affecting geographic distribution of body size are poorly known. We present an analysis of body size within and between species of an anuran genus using a climatic approach. We studied geographic body size distribution in 23 species of South American redbelly toads (Melanophryniscus) spanning 16° latitude, 22° longitude, and 2,400 m altitude. Body size was analyzed in relation to climatic parameters including temperature, precipitation, seasonality, evapotranspiration, and water balance at interspecific, interpopulational (all populations regardless of species), and intraspecific (populations within species) levels. LogSVL was regressed against climatic principal components scores using simultaneous autoregression. Interspecifically and interpopulationally, temperature and precipitation are the main factors responsible for the observed size clines, larger body sizes being associated wi...

Abstract: A parasitological survey was carried out to determine the relationships between the helminth fauna and biological traits of the hosts in three Algerian populations of Podarcis lizards belonging to two different evolutionary lineages. Size, sex, and locality of collection, as well as the infracommunities and component communities, were analyzed. Very low values of parasite infection parameters and diversity were found in all three populations. This is in accordance with the feeding habits of these lizard hosts, which only eat animal prey and no plant matter. Spauligodon saxicolae (Nematoda: Pharyngodonidae), a specialist in lizards, is reported here for the first time in Africa. This nematode was the dominant parasite species for the three populations of lizards regardless their phylogenetic lineage, size, sex, and environmental conditions.

Abstract: We studied dietary composition and seasonal dietary patterns of the Mexican Twelve-lined Whiptail (Aspidoscelis lineatissima) in Chamela, Jalisco, Mexico. We removed stomach contents and identified them as to the order to which they belonged. We calculated an importance value, food niche breadth, and food niche overlap indexes. Termites were the most important prey item. They were consumed throughout the year, particularly during the dry season, suggesting that A. lineatissima is a facultative specialist during the driest period of the study. Other important food items were lepidopteran larvae, coleopterans (adults and larvae), hymenopterans, orthopterans, and arachnids. Dietary composition was similar between the sexes. However, we found dietary differences among lizard size classes and seasons, indicating opportunistic use of temporally abundant arthropods.

Abstract: The Blue-spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterale) and the Jefferson Salamander (Ambystoma jeffersonianum) are both part of the Jefferson complex that also includes unisexuals of various ploidy levels and genome composition, referred to as genomotypes. Female unisexuals reproduce mainly through gynogenesis, but ploidy elevations, translocations, recombinations, intergenomic exchanges, and genome replacement also have been documented. The objective of this study was to obtain information on the geographical distribution of genomotypes and the distribution of genetic diversity in southern Quebec, Canada. To do so, we examined populations of the Jefferson complex from five sites, including one site from a city and the other sites from protected areas. Genetic analysis using mitochondrial DNA and six microsatellite loci were performed. Results revealed that genomotype frequencies vary greatly, because some populations were mainly composed of A. laterale, whereas unisexuals were clearly predominant in o...

Abstract: In this paper we describe a new species of toad of the genus Incilius. This species was originally recorded as Bufo simus, a synonym of I. occidentalis. It differs from I. occidentalis by having the following combination of characters: a pale brown dorsal ground color with numerous dark brown spots and lacking a vertebral stripe and a high density of granules on the dorsum producing a rugose skin texture. The most developed of the cranial crests is the supraorbital, while the parietal is poorly developed. Incilius mccoyi inhabits pine and pine-oak forests of the southwestern Sierra Madre Occidental in Chihuahua, Mexico.