Abstract: A 64-item questionnaire was distributed through the mail to certified public accountants (CPAs), lawyers, pharmacists and physicians in the Baltimore City area to determine their experience with, and attitudes towards, electronic computers. Return rates were not significantly different for the four groups and averaged 27.7 per cent for all groups combined. The data analyses are based on 521 replies.

Abstract: Abstract A 64-item questionnaire was distributed through the mail to certified public accountants (CPAs), lawyers, pharmacists and physicians in the Baltimore City area to determine their experience with, and attitudes towards, electronic computers. Return rates were not significantly different for the four groups and averaged 27·7 per cent for all groups combined. The data analyses are based on 521 replies. Analyses of the background information supplied by the four groups show that CPAs in general have more training on, are more familiar with, and have greater access to computers than do the other professional groups. Lawyers in general have the least exposure to computers, A factor analysis of the responses to the attitude items yielded six factors. Three of the more important clusters of attitudes are associated with: (a) a view of computers as efficient and beneficial machines; (b) dissatisfaction with their depersonalizing nature; and (c) enthusiasm for working with computers. Finally, a multivariate analysis of variance indicated significant differences in attitudes among the four groups. CPAs and pharmacists tend to view computers more positively than do the other two groups. Lawyers are most likely to describe computers with negative terms, such as depersonalizing, formal and difficult.

Abstract: This paper outlines the strategies adopted by the psychologists and ergonomists of the HUSAT Research Group to help organizations learn about information technology and systematically review and plan its organizational ramifications. An essential point is that it is not enough to understand the technology; effective implementation demands the ability to establish organizational needs and to choose a form of technology which will meet them. The paper examines three ways of designing systems. Firstly, a technology-led approach which leads to 'fire fighting' when the negative organizational effects become apparent. A second method has tried to compensate for this by involving users in the design process. Unfortunately by the time the users have come to terms with their new task and are able to make a contribution, the system has usually been designed. The third method of design expressly seeks to give users the time and opportunity to learn how to contribute to design, by making the design process e...

Abstract: A new query language designed to improve ease-of-use and ease-of-learning for ‘naive’ users is presented. Its main interest is to avoid the explicit use of boolean operators for set operations by pointing on Venn diagrams. A human factors comparison with a more traditional design has been performed, using a query writing task. Results show that graphic representation of selected subsets allows less error-prone queries in a single relation database.

Abstract: In a recent paper, Cash and Moore have given a fourth order formula for the approximate numerical integration of two-point boundary value problems in O.D.E.s. The formula presented was in effect a “one-off” formula in that it was obtained using a trial and error approach. The purpose of the present paper is to describe a unified approach to the derivation of high order formulae for the numerical integration of two-point boundary value problems. It is shown that the formula derived by Cash and Moore fits naturally into this framework and some new formulae of orders 4, 6 and 8 are derived using this approach. A numerical comparison with certain existing finite difference methods is made and this comparison indicates the efficiency of the high order methods for problems having a suitably smooth solution.

Abstract: What are names for computer files and commands like? How do people go about naming them? How do the properties such names can have affect the ease with which they can be learned and used? This paper sketches a general view of names and naming in which the linguistic forms that names take are deliberately structured to reflect functional interrelations between their referents. This view is then applied to an analysis of personal filenames chosen by CMS users and to a series of experimental studies of command languages.

Abstract: The familiar flowchart has been widely used not only to explicate programs but also to present many other kinds of algorithms, rules and instructions. With the rise of structured programming, a number of competing notations have been produced, each trying to improve on flowcharts. Several of these notations are compared and empirical evidence is reviewed as to their success or failure, and some of the difficulties that arise with the new notations are pointed out. To emphasize the wide applicability of these notations illustrations are taken from everyday algorithms.

Abstract: Users of interactive computer systems often experience difficulty in learning and remembering the command vocabulary needed to communicate with the system. This study investigates how task and vocabulary differences affect initial learning and subsequent memory for commands used in a simple editing task. Systems with semantically specific terms were learned no more quickly than systems with semantically general terms, but the nature of the command vocabulary induced different learning strategies. Users of the specific vocabulary made less use of help (provided in the form of a command menu and definitions of operations) than did usersof the general command vocabulary. However, users ofthe specific vocabulary appeared to take more time actively considering options before deciding to consult HELP. These strategy differences were reflected in users' memory for the commands and the task operations 2 weeks later. In addition, the learning strategies adopted were dependent on user's predispositions as ...

Abstract: This summary discusses issues raised at a National Research Council symposium on vision and VDT work, held at the request of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Symposium participants critically reviewed laboratory studies of visual function and field surveys of visual complaints of VDT operators to determine what conclusions can be drawn about the prevalence, severity, causes of, and possible remedies for reported difficulties. Although speakers' perspectives differed, a number of points appeared to gain consensus: (i) properly designed epidemiologies) studies comparing the incidence of visual problems in VDT operators with that in non-VDT workers are needed, (ii) Visual issues are closely interrelated with ergonomic and job design variables, and use of multivariate statistical analysis is necessary to determine what specific aspects of work involving VDTs may contribute to visual and other complaints, (iii) No scientifically valid study has established that VDT use causes...

Abstract: A survey of 203 undergraduates indicated that there are three clusters of computer applications about which respondents hold similar attitudes: quantitative applications (e.g. processing bills), decisionmaking applications (e.g. diagnosing medical problems) and record-keeping applications (e.g. storing information about criminals). Respondents were favourable towards quantitative and record-keeping applications but rejected decisionmaking applications, especially those involving decisions traditionally made by psychologists. Experience with computers and perceptions of the computer as efficient, humanizing and enjoyable were correlated significantly with attitudes towards specific applications. Locus of control and interpersonal trust were not related to attitudes. Interpretations of potentially dehumanizing effects of computers were discussed, along with implications of attitudes towards specific applications for decisions about how computers ought to be used.

Abstract: The use of an interactive computer system to aid the doctor with history taking and diagnosis is described. The system is developed for dyspepsia cases and is designed to be flexible enough to give the doctor considerable choice in the way it is used in the consulting room. We have observed and analysed its use by doctors in two very different settings; registrars and SHOs in an outpatient clinic, and GP trainers in a simulation exercise. All the doctors found individual ways of using the computer in the consultation, some chose to use it ‘conversationally’, alternating their attention between patient and computer, whilst others attempted to minimize its use while the patient was present. Patients’ reactions to the use of computers in general, and to their experience of this system specifically are described. The ways in which the computer imposes structure on the consultation and seems to influence the doctors’ decision processes are discussed. The complex dynamics of the interaction between pat...

Abstract: Optimally naming commands involves maximizing the ability to convey an implicit model of system actions and relationships by choosing names which suggest those actions and relationships. Suggestiveness is hypothesized to be based upon the semantic similarity of the names and commands, which can be usefully formulated in terms of Tversky's model of featural similarity. To test this model of suggestiveness, three experiments were conducted. In the first experiment, 14 computer-naive subjects made semantic judgements about three sets of command names, and their responses were compared with judgements made by programmers about the corresponding set of editor commands. The judgements were used to create features to assign to each name and command. The suggestiveness of each name was then computed, using a simple context-free version of Tversky's similarity model. In the second experiment, another group of 12 computer-naive subjects was asked to pair the names from the first experiment with before-afte...

Abstract: Five abbreviation schemes (simple truncation, vowel drop, minimum to distinguish, phonics and user denned) were analysed for learning, encoding and decoding. Forty subjects were each tested on two schemes, using two different 20 word lexicons. Simple truncation was the easiest to learn, based upon a trials to criteria experiment. Using a modified tachistoscopic display, simple truncation was the best for encodability. Either vowel drop or phonics was the best scheme for decoding. It appears that information content is important in decoding, but not in encoding.

Abstract: Computer commands have been created from natural language words for a broad range of naive and occasional users. These command languages have been investigated for their ease-of-use according to different perspectives. The approach developed here concerns the design of commands by the users themselves. A number of methodological problems are highlighted. The experimental simulation that was run supports both evidence of a generation effect and the importance of structuring the commands.

Abstract: This is a case study of five scientific research communities which used EIES (the Electronic Information Exchange System, a computerized conferencing system) for 2 years. Relying primarily upon the subjective reports of the participating scientists, it describes: (i) increases in ‘connectivity’ (the size and density of the communication networks in which the scientists are embedded); (ii) qualitative changes in the ways in which the scientists think and work; and (iii) reported changes in such productivity-related factors as increases in the available ‘stock of ideas’ and in the availability of references and other information useful in their work.

Abstract: Revisions made by authors to their own manuscripts were studied in order to derive general principles of editing behavior and factors that might be useful in the design of text editors. Among the dependent variables were the amount of material in each edit and the frequency of different classes of edits. Edits of single words were found to be especially common and the most frequent class of edit was changes. Furthermore, edits were not randomly distributed throughout the papers but tended to be clustered.

Abstract: Eight VDTs of different trademarks were analysed in relation to the following properties: ( a) Contrasts of luminance between the screens on the one hand and source documents, as well as other surfaces of the VDT, on the other. (b) Oscillation degree, sharpness and stability of characters. ( c) Face and legibility of characters. ( d) Dimensions, mobility and reflection degrees of the keyboards. Special equipment was developed and standardized conditions were applied to the measurements. The eight VDTs showed essential differences for all the parameters, which might be partially responsible for eye strain and postural complaints. It can be concluded that customers should pay more attention to ergonomic qualities when choosing a VDT. But such an endeavour remains useless if the customer does not, at the same time, look for a proper design of the whole workstation including the working environment.

Abstract: Technological innovations have, until recently, had little impact on the office environment. The advent of the microelectronic revolution has generated devices and mechanisms that support a wide spectrum of administrative functions and increase both the efficiency and effectiveness of office workers. This paper presents a state-of-the-art perspective on the newer technological aids developed specifically for the office environment. The speed and versatility of these aids is a tribute to recent innovations in the field of computers and communications.

Abstract: The case for interactive computer dialogues for naive users to be based upon textual keyboard inputs is supported. A number of problems associated with this approach are highlighted relating to the fact that a single input may be entered in a variety of ways. A computer procedure, called TEX, is proposed which is designed to tolerate this variance and to successfully recognize textual inputs.

Abstract: In many fields of human endeavour the group discussion has become the standard forum for solving problems and making decisions. That individuals would and still do travel many miles at great personal inconvenience to attend such meetings is testimony to their importance. However, in the past decade psychologists have been producing evidence that the group, as a decision making entity, is flawed. This paper presents a short selective review of that evidence and reports on work which shows how the intervention of an electronic alternative to groups meeting face-to-face may be used to increase the decisionmaking effectiveness of working groups. One such alternative is video-teleconferencing.

Abstract: This paper describes an approach to the design of interactive information systems based on a ‘total activity model’, that is, a description of activities performed by the user and activities performed for the user. The system is illustrated by outlining the approach in relation to existing word-processing systems and by describing in more detail its application in an experimental filing and task management system. The second part of the paper addresses the question: what hardware and software resources are needed in order to implement effective interactive systems of the type described?

Abstract: (1982) A Review of: “Man-Machine Dialogue Design” Behaviour & Information Technology: Vol 1, No 4, pp 421-421

Abstract: Thirty trained female typists performed several consecutive l0min typing tasks on an adjustable VDT workstation. The experiments were conducted with preferred as well as with imposed settings. The body postures were determined during the typing tasks and the subjects filled out questionnaires at the end of the tasks. The study discloses that the preferred workstation dimensions are associated with mainly ‘relaxed’ sensations, while imposed dimensions—even if they are similar to the mean values of preferred settings—cause an increased incidence of static load symptoms in the sense of increased tension or impairments in the neck-shoulder-arm-hand area. The preferred keyboard levels are mainly distinctly higher than those recommended in standards and brochures. A chair with a high backrest and a proper support to rest forearms and wrists are preconditions for the preferred postures at VDT workstations.

Abstract: A review of the literature involving empirical research (experimental and field investigations) on stressful aspects of visual display terminal (VDT) operation is presented. Studies reviewed included assessment of visual fatigue and/or performance, musculoskeletal symptoms and operator attitudes towards job demands and quality of working life. In addition, some investigation included discussions and evaluations of the physical attributes of VDT workplaces; including ergonomic factors (task lighting, glare conditions, anthropometric configuration of VDT and accompanying furniture), environmental factors (temperature, humidity, radiation) and psychosocial factors (job demand, work content, work-rest schedules). The literature reveals that levels of visual and musculoskeletal complaints among VDT operators are high. Moreover, ergonomic field assessment of VDT workplaces indicate that the majority of those examined were suboptimal with respect to existing recommendations regarding lighting, glare con...

Abstract: Designing computer interfaces to match human cognitive processes is increasingly important as computer systems become more sophisticated. This paper examines experimental results, models and research strategies relevant to cognitive processes in user interfaces for topics including query languages, command languages, programming, problem solving, editing and displays.