Abstract: The architectural arrangement and leaf area of representative branch units, on one branch complex from each cluster on the stem, were measured on six trees in a widely spaced 7-year-old Pinus radiata D. Don plantation. There was a linear relationship between leaf area and the basal area of branch complexes. Assuming similarity in the arrangement of branch units within concomitant branch complexes at each cluster, the 3-dimensional distribution of leaf area density (leaf area per unit volume) in an array of cubic cells, each 10(-3) m(3), comprising the volume of each tree crown, was reconstructed. The fraction of cells in which foliage was present varied from 0.08 to 0.23 in the crowns with the highest (Tree 4) and lowest (Tree 3) degree of clumping, respectively. This difference was related to the number, length, and leaf area per unit length of Order 3 branch units, in particular. The actual distributions of leaf area density were used with a simple radiative transfer model to estimate the probability of penetration of beam and diffuse photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) through individual tree crowns. The average probability of beam penetration was greater for the tree with the most clumped foliage than for the tree with the least clumped foliage. For both trees, the average probabilities of penetration were greater than the values that would have resulted if a random distribution of foliage had been assumed. The negative binomial model was used to estimate an index of foliage dispersion for the tree crowns. For beam PAR, the index of foliage dispersion was 3.3 and 2.3 for the trees with the most, and the least clumped foliage, respectively. These results were supported by analysis of the architectural arrangement of foliage in the tree crowns. For two days in summer, the assumption that leaf area density was randomly distributed would have resulted in a 20 to 30% overestimation of intercepted PAR flux by the tree crowns.

Abstract: Spores characteristic of the tree pathogenic blue-stain fungus, Ophiostoma polonicum Siemasko, and other fungi are visible in scanning electron micrographs of pits on the pronotum and elytra of Ips typographus (L.). Inoculation and reisolation experiments show that O. polonicum was transmitted to logs at generally higher frequencies by live beetles and their excised parts (head, prothorax, or elytra) than by the digestive tract. Other associated fungi isolated at high frequencies from I. typographus were O. bicolor Davidson & Wells, O. penicillatum (Grosmann) Siemasko, Graphium sp., and yeasts.

Abstract: . 1. Weekly samples of Malaise trapped Coleoptera from regenerating shrubland and an adjacent mature, podocarp-broadleaved forest, in the North Island, New Zealand, were compared over one season. Three traps were monitored in each site. 2. Diversity indices did not group samples by site whereas the divisive polythetic classification analysis TWINSPAN showed that the two sites possessed clearly different communities. In the classification, site was of primary importance, with time of year, and trap position within site of secondary and tertiary importance respectively. 3. Samples were compared at different taxonomic levels and using different subsets of the database. Determination of the main families, morphotyped to species or species complex, was found to be sufficient to classify most samples to the appropriate community group. 4. The divisive classification procedure applied to four consecutive weekly Coleoptera samples over early summer, is suggested as a means of describing and identifying terrestrial arthropod communities characteristic of site and year of collection. This approach provides a potentially sensitive tool for monitoring terrestrial ecosystems.

Abstract: The microarthropod and enchytraeid fauna of a natural lead-contaminated soil in a Norwegian spruce, Picea abies (L.) Karst., forest was studied in gradients from unpolluted soil to the middle of a vegetation-free area. Because of dissolved lead from the bedrock, about 50 m2 of the forest floor lacked vegetation, and another 50 m2 had weakly developed vegetation. The lead content in the raw humus was up to 10–15% dry wt. Increasing levels of lead gave a gradual reduction in species numbers among plants and microarthropods. Microarthropod species varied in their ability to live in lead-polluted soil. Four groups were recognized: (1) sensitive species associated with normal vegetation, (2) less sensitive species occurring even in areas with strongly reduced vegetation, (3) tolerant species extending their range into vegetation-free areas, and (4) microarthropods favored by strong lead pollution ( Isotoma olivacea Tullberg among Collembola and Nanorchestes sp. among mites). Because a few species increased strongly in the vegetation-free area, the total abundance of microarthropods remained almost the same throughout the gradient. Changes in vegetation cover along the lead gradient is a confounding factor, but sensitive species proved to react equally negatively to increased lead levels when the vegetation factor was kept constant. Possible adaptations to lead during the postglacial period are discussed.

Abstract: Size and age structure analysis, dated past disturbances, treefall replacement patterns, and spatial pattern analysis were used to reconstruct the developmental history of two old-growth Nothofagus fusca/N. menziesii stands, South Island, New Zealand. Diameter and height class distributions suggested that N. menziesii was replacing N. fusca, however, stand history reconstruction analysis showed that both species had regenerated intermittently after small-scale disturbances. Although large-scale disturbances such as blowdowns may occasionally generate even-aged stands, gap-phase regeneration maintains the forests in compositional equilibrium. In the absence of other competing tree species and understorey plants the two species appear to coexist by way of different life history strategies, where one species (N. menziesii) has low juvenile mortality and the other (N. fusca) has faster height growth rates and greater longevity and adult survivorship.

Abstract: In a field experiment in southernmost Norway four young trees of each of eight coniferous species were subjected to artificial inoculation with the pathogenic blue-stain fungus Ophiostoma polonicum, associated with the spruce bark beetle Ips typographic A dose previously known to Be lethal to most Norway spruce trees also killed individuals of Sitka, white, and black spruce, and Douglas fir. All Scots and lodgepole pines, and subalpine firs survived the given load of infection. Douglas fir did not exhibit the induced resinous defence reaction seen in spruce and pine. The fungus did not proliferate in the phloem of Douglas fir, but spread more easily in a tangential direction in the sapwood of this species than in spruce.

Abstract: Acidification of raw humus soil in coniferous forest areas leads to characteristic changes in the microarthropod community. Certain species are “calciophilic” and decrease in abundance, while others are “acidophilic” and increase in abundance. The simplest explanation for these changes is that population levels are directly related to soil pH. This hypothesis was tested by growing small populations of selected species in monoculture at different pH levels. Three acidophilic species were tested, the collembolan Mesaphorura yosii, the oribatid mite Nothrus silvestris, and the astigmatid mite Schwiebea cf. lebruni. A slightly calciophilic collembolan, Isotomiella minor, was also included. For all species, population growth was lowest in acidified raw humus. Even acidophilic species seem to have an optimum at a high pH. It is assumed that their success in low-pH soils is due to their ability to compete under these conditions. Competition may be a key factor in microarthropod reactions to soil acidification.

Abstract: A previous hydrometric study of runoff production in tussock grassland drainage basins in Otago (45°50′S, 169°45′E), New Zealand, revealed a marked change of slope in storm hydrograph recessions. An environmental isotope study was initiated to investigate the runoff mechanisms operating and to test specific hypotheses to explain this break in the hydrograph recession. The results indicated that for quickflow volumes in excess of 10mm, the first part of the storm hydrograph can be attributed to two separate sources, namely, ‘old’ water from a shallow, unconfined groundwater reservoir and ‘new’ water from saturation overland flow on the lower wetlands of concave slopes. Despite the extensive area of wetlands, ‘old’ water runoff from the unconfined groundwater reservoir is delivered more rapidly to the stream than ‘new’ water from saturation overland flow. Substantial surface storage in the wetlands has first to be exceeded before rain becomes a significant part of stream discharge. For quickflow volumes less than 10mm, only ‘old’ water from groundwater contributes to the first part of the hydrograph recession. This means that only the largest 7 per cent of storms (in terms of quickflow volume) generate quickflow containing significant amounts of ‘new water’. The second part of the recession of the storm hydrograph consists of ‘old’ water derived from a remarkably well-mixed shallow unconfined groundwater body.

Abstract: This article is based on the concluding remarks by the author at the Ninth Paavo Nurmi Symposium on ‘Lipoproteins and the Pathobiology of the Arterial Intima’…. Circulating cholesterol is carried into the arterial intima, the site of atherogenesis, in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particles, and from the intima back into the circulation in high-density lipoprotein (HDL) particles. At affected sites in the intima, cholesterol accumulates in deposits known as atheromas. These local accumulations are due to disturbances in the cholesterol flow through the intima, resulting in imbalance between inflow and outflow of cholesterol. The rate of cholesterol accumulation depends ultimately on the severity of the imbalance. The factor primarily responsible for this cholesterol imbalance appears to be local modification of LDL particles. Hence, to prevent accumulation of cholesterol in the intima, the production of modified LDL particles must be prevented. This can best be achieved by reducing the inflow of LDL particles into the intima. This, in turn, can be achieved by lowering the concentration of circulating LDL particles. In addition, increasing the concentration of circulating HDL particles should accelerate the rate of removal of cholesterol from the intima. so further improving the disturbed cholesterol balance at the atheromatous sites.

Abstract: Photosynthetic rates and nutrient contents of spruce needles were measured in a region with high levels of air pollution in NE Bavaria, Germany (FRG), and compared to spruce grown under clean air conditions at Craigieburn, in the South Island of New Zealand (NZ). The absolute rates of CO2 uptake, the slope of the CO2 response curve at 240 μl l-1 internal CO2 concentration, and the change of photosynthetic rates with needle age at ambient and saturated CO2 concentrations were virtually identical at both measuring sites. These results confirm an earlier conclusion, that there is no long-term effect of atmospheric pollutants directly on photosynthetic CO2 uptake rates with persistent exposure at the FRG site to high levels of anthropogenic air pollution. Photosynthetic capacity at saturating CO2 concentration was three times higher in the NZ spruce. Needles with high photosynthetic capacity in NZ had lower nitrogen and higher calcium concentrations per unit dry weight but higher concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium and calcium per unit leaf area, and twice the specific leaf weight.

Abstract: The volatile flavour fraction from the flesh of ripe feijoa fruit (Feijoa sellowiana Berg cv Mammoth) has been isolated by high vacuum steam distillation and subsequent liquid-liquid extraction of the volatiles. Analysis by capillary GC and GC-MS led to the identification of 15 constituents of which (Z)-hex-3-enal and isopropyl benzoate are reported for the first time. Methyl benzoate constituted 82% of the volatile flavour extract.

Abstract: The chromophores responsible for kraft colour have been generally assumed to be derived from the aromatic portions of the lignin molecule. Analytical studies of the high molecular weight dissolved materials from kraft lignin, kraft cooked sugars, and extraction stage effluent by pyrolysis GC-MS, permanganate/periodate oxidation, and UV-visible spectroscopy showed that these materials had a wide variation in aromatic content but similar spectral properties. It is now proposed that carbohydrate degradation products produced by the kraft cooking of sugars are primarily responsible for the kraft colour.

Abstract: Results from a factorial acid treatment and liming experiment in a stand of Scots pine planted in 1968 to 1970 are presented. Field plots, 75 m2 in size, were supplied with 50 mm of artificial rain 38 times from 1974 to 1981. “Ram” of varying acidities was produced using groundwater mixed with H2SO4. Lime was applied at four levels in 1974 in a factorial acid treatment-liming design. Tree growth and foliar nutrient concentrations were measured annually from 1974 to 1988 The soil was sampled periodically from 1975 to 1988 at mainly 3 yr intervals. Tree growth was initially stimulated by increased acid loadings. Negative effects occurred after 5 yr. Positive effects of liming developed after 9 yr No major signs of recovery from the most acid treatments have yet been found Treatment effects appeared to be linear, indicating no threshold values for growth reactions. Treatment effects on foliar concentrations were found for a majority of elements analyzed Increased acid loadings decreased the Mg, Ca and Mn concentrations, while K concentrations increased — especially during later years Liming improved the nutrient status at increased acid loadings for Mg, Ca and Mn and decreased K concentrations. Soil sampling in 1984 showed major losses of Mg, Ca and Mn by increased acid loadings, while the K content was less affected. A link seems to exist between tree growth and the Mg situation in soil and foliage.

Abstract: Concentrations of ions were measured in soil solutions from beech (Nothofagus) forests in remote areas of New Zealand and in solutions from beech (Fagus sylvatica) and Norway spruce (Picea abies) forests in North-East Bavaria, West Germany, to compare the chemistry of soil solutions which are unaffected by acid deposition (New Zealand) with those that are affected (West Germany). In New Zealand, soil solution SO4 2− concentrations ranged between <2 and 58 μmol L−1, and NO3 − concentrations ranged between <1 and 3 μmol L−1. In West Germany, SO4 2− concentrations ranged between 80 and 700 μmol L−1, and NO3 − concentrations at three of six sites ranged between 39 and 3750 μmol L−1, but was not detected at the remaining three sites. At all sites in New Zealand, and at sites where the soil base status was moderately high in West Germany, pH levels increased, and total Al (Alt) and inorganic monomeric Al (Ali) levels decreased rapidly with increasing soil depth. In contrast, at sites on soils of low base status in West Germany, pH levels increased only slightly, and Al levels did not decline with increasing soil depth. Under a high-elevation Norway spruce stand showing severe Mg deficiency and dieback symptoms in West Germany, soil solution Mg2+ levels ranged between 20 and 60 μmol L−, and were only half those under a healthy stand. Alt and Ali levels were substantially higher the healthy stand than under the unhealthy stand, indicating that Al toxicity was not the main cause of spruce decline.

Abstract: Microbial activity was measured using cellulose sheets on two geographically separated sites, one in Trogstad, SE‐Norway, and the other near Joensuu, SE‐Finland, to study effects of climate, drainage, and fertilization. The biggest weight losses from the cellulose sheets were recorded under the litter layer and in the upper 5 cm peat layer. The weight loss for these layers in, e.g. 1987/88 (1 June‐31 May), ranged from 64–74% on the Trogstad site and from 64–82 % on the Joensuu site. The Joensuu data were to some extent explained by the variation in precipitation and air temperature, while the effects of the drainage in 1984 probably covered such effects on the Trogstad site. The cellulose decomposition rate was high during winter‐spring periods (16 October‐31 May), about the same percentage as in the summer‐autumn periods (1 June‐15 October). A strong fertilization response was found in the microbiological activity, resulting in a 10 cm‐downward shift in the depth for measureable weight loss from the cell...

Abstract: Complete diallel crosses were performed in three Norway spruce stands and in one seed orchard. Results are presented for seed yield and 1000 seed weights. Filled seed percentages were higher for open‐pollinated families than for outcrossed full‐sib families and were lowest for selfed families. A large variation was found between the maternal parent trees for this character and a smaller variation between the paternal parents. No distinction could be made between genetic and environmental variation in filled seed percentages. Two out of 34 parents produced no viable seeds after selfing. Seeds from controlled crosses were heavier than seeds from open pollination. The maternal parent accounted for more than 75% of the total variation in 1000 seed weight. In addition, a small, but statistically significant effect of the male parent was found.

Abstract: Egg-batches of the pine processionary moth, T. pityocampa, collected in autumn, winter and spring time at different locations and different parts of pine tree-tops in Bulgaria were studied at various temperatures and relative humidities, in order to determine the rate of parasitism and the number of parasitoid generations. Four species of egg parasitoids were found. The most abundant were Ooencyrtus pityocampae (Merc.) and Eutetrastichus servadeii (Dom.). Anastatus bifasciatus (Fonsc.) and Trichogramma embryophagum (Hbg.) were less frequent. The species attacked all parts of the egg-batches, except Tr. embryophagum which parasitized eggs situated at the apical parts of the batches and those not covered with scales. Two generations were found in O. pityocampae and E. servadeii, the second of the latter appeared simultaneously with the adults of the host. The first generation of parasitoids appeared during the embryonic development of the caterpillars and could parasitize the late embryonic stages of the host. The second generation larvae were developing in the egg-batches when chemical pest control was applied. All the parasitoids laid the eggs in various stages of embryonic development of the host. In each host egg only one individual of E. servadeii developed. An emergence of more than one adult parasitoid per egg could be recorded only in Tr. embryophagum. The optimal temperature for the development of parasitoids was 21°C at 75% RH. The rate of parasitism increased with the height of the egg-batches in pine tree-tops. As for exposition, the highest rate of parasitism (28.6%) was observed in the southern parts of the trees where pest egg-batches were most frequent. The rate of parasitism was particularly high in egg-batches from isolated tress. Zusammenfassung Eiparasitoide des Kiefernprozessionsspinners, Thaumetopoea pityocampa (Den. & Schiff.) (Lep. Thaumetopoeidae) in Bulgarien: Arten, Bedeutung, Biologie und Verhalten Eigelege des Kiefernprozessionsspinners T. pityocampa wurden in Bulgarien zu verschiedenen Jahreszeiten, an verschiedenen Orten und Teilen der Baumkronen wahrend mehrerer Jahre gesammelt und im Labor bei verschiedenen Temperaturen und relativen Feuchtigkeiten untersucht. Zusatzlich wurde die Anzahl der Parasitoid-Generationen ermittelt. Es wurden 4 Arten von Eiparasitoiden registriert. Die haufigsten und wirkungsvollsten waren Ooencyrtus pityocampae (Merc.) und Eutetrastichus servadeii (Dom.). Anastatus bifasciatus (Fonsc.) und Trichogramma embryophagum (Htg.) waren weniger haufig vertreten. Die Arten parasitierten alle Teile der Eigelege auser Tr. embryophagum; diese Art schlupfte nur aus Eiern an den Gelegeenden und aus unbedeckten Eiern. Von O. pityocampae und E. servadeii konnten pro Jahr zwei Generationen erhalten werden. Die erste Parasitoid-Generation trat wahrend der Embryonalentwicklung des Wirtes auf und konnte somit noch spate Embryonalstadien parasitieren. Die zweite Parasitoid-Generation ist in den Eigelegen geschutzt, wenn zur Zeit der fruhen Raupenstadien eine chemische Bekampfung durchgefuhrt wird. Die zweite Generation von E. servadeii trat gleichzeitig mit den Faltern des Wirtes auf. In jedem Wirtsei entwickelte sich nur ein Parasitoid. Nur von Tr. embryophagum schlupften bis zu 17 Individuen aus einem Wirtsei. Alle Parasitoide legten ihre Eier in verschiedenen Embryonalstadien des Wirtes ab. Als optimale Entwicklungstemperatur der Parasitoide wurde 21°C bei 75% rel. Luftfeuchte ermittelt. Die Parasitierungsrate stieg mit der Hohe der Eigelege in der Baumkrone an; sie war um 3 m Hohe am hochsten (34,8%). Wird die Exposition betrachtet, so konnte die hochste Parasitierungsrate an der Sudseite der Baume beobachtet werden, wo auch die meisten Eigelege gefunden wurden. Am starksten parasitiert waren Eigelege an einzeln stehenden Kiefern.

Abstract: Lead, cadmium, and iron contamination was examined in the plumage of feral pigeons. Metal contamination in pigeons from different regions in Bratislava or in different seasons did not differ significantly; seasonal type of food did not significantly influence the concentrations. The blood of birds was examined for the presence of complement fixing antibodies toChlamydia psittaci. Birds with antibodies did not contain significantly higher metal concentrations in the plumage than birds without antibodies. Juveniles contained significantly lower lead burdens than adults. Plumage lead concentrations increased with age of nestlings. Females and males did not differ significantly. Melanic juveniles possessed significantly lower levels of cadmium than “wild” types. Adults with body weight, head length or wing length above the average exhibited higher plumage cadmium concentrations than the birds with undersized body weight, head length or wing length.

Abstract: Forest tree improvement has to handle long living organisms which start flowering late and which grow in a heterogeneous environment. In modern tree improvement programs, two main aims have to be fulfilled: Conservation of the genetic variation of the species under consideration for future needs and as a measure of protection of natural resources. Improvement of economic important characteristics of the trees to fit better to human needs. In face of the growing world population and the depletion of natural resources this is especially true for production characteristics.

Abstract: The needle-infecting fungus Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii (Rohde) Petrak spread to stands of Douglas fir [Psendotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco] in most parts of New Zealand following its first detection in the central North Island in 1959. At Hanmer Forest in the South Island, the percentage of infected needles rose more rapidly in a provenance from northern inland California than in one from Kaingaroa Forest in the North Island. Increase in infection was accompanied by a significant decrease in the proportion of needles retained on shoots of certain age classes, the reduction in the Californian seedlot being greater than in that from Kaingaroa. More older foliage was retained in the Kaingaroa provenance at Hanmer Forest, when infection averaged under 30 %, than at two other locations where mean infection exceeded 90 %. It is suggested that heavily infected production stands of Douglas fir suffer some premature casting of older needles, even when crowns appear healthy.

Abstract: For two sites in the Black Forest, presence, extent and ecological significance of structure-dependent chemical. heterogeneity in the rhizosphere of acid forest soils is discussed. The heterogeneity is demonstrated by two independent methods. First, by comparison of soil solution composition in (quasi-) equilibrium with undisturbed soil cores and sieved soil samples. Water soluble K, Ca and Mg show a selective depletion on aggregate surfaces. Second, by comparison of cumulated amounts of exchangeable ions obtained from percolated homogenized soil samples and undisturbed soil cores. The release of exchangeable K, Ca and Mg is less, if soil structure is not destroyed. The finding that aggregate surfaces are more depleted of exchangeable and water-soluble K, Ca and Mg is common in aggregated acid forest soils. As aggregate surfaces bind soil water with low suction, that is where the roots preferentially grow. Consequently, a considerable underestimation of chemical stress in the rhizosphere is possible, if soil structure is destroyed for analysis.

Abstract: The defense secretions of the soldiers of the Malaysian rhinotermitid,Parrhinotermes aequalis (Havilandi) andP. pygmaeus (John),Termitogeton planus (Havilandi) andSchedorhinotermes malaccensis (Holmgren) consist mainly of vinyl ketones, whereas that ofProrhinotermes flavus (Bugnion & Popoff) gives (E)-1-nitropentadecene. The chemistry of the defense secretions ofParrhinotermes andTermitogeton is documented and based on their chemical relationships;Termitogeton shows a closer affinity to the Rhinotermitinae than Heterotermitinae.