Abstract: The impacts of historical land cover changes witnessed between 1973 and 2000 on the hydrologic response of the Nyando River Basin were investigated. The land cover changes were obtained through consistent classifications of selected Landsat satellite images. Their effects on runoff peak discharges and volumes were subsequently assessed using selected hydrologic models for runoff generation and routing available within the HEC-HMS. Physically based parameters of the models were estimated from the land cover change maps together with a digital elevation model and soil datasets of the basin. Observed storm events for the simulation were selected and their interpolated spatial distributions obtained using the univariate ordinary Kriging procedure. The simulated flows from the 14 sub-catchments were routed downstream afterwards to obtain the accrued effects in the entire river basin. Model results obtained generally revealed significant and varying increases in the runoff peak discharges and volumes within the basin. In the upstream sub-catchments with higher rates of deforestation, increases between 30 and 47% were observed in the peak discharge. In the entire basin, however, the flood peak discharges and volumes increased by at least 16 and 10% respectively during the entire study period. The study successfully outlined the hydrological consequences of the eminent land cover changes and hence the need for sustainable land use and catchment management strategies. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Abstract: Tsetse flies are notoriously difficult to observe in nature, particularly when populations densities are low. It is therefore difficult to observe them on their hosts in nature; hence their vertebrate species can very often only be determined indirectly by analysis of their gut contents. This knowledge is a critical component of the information on which control tactics can be developed. The objective of this study was to determine the sources of tsetse bloodmeals, hence investigate their feeding preferences. We used mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase 1 (COI) and cytochrome b (cytb) gene sequences for identification of tsetse fly blood meals, in order to provide a foundation for rational decisions to guide control of trypanosomiasis, and their vectors. Glossina swynnertoni were sampled from Serengeti (Tanzania) and G. pallidipes from Kenya (Nguruman and Busia), and Uganda. Sequences were used to query public databases, and the percentage identities obtained used to identify hosts. An initial assay showed that the feeds were from single sources. Hosts identified from blood fed flies collected in Serengeti ecosystem, included buffaloes (25/40), giraffes (8/40), warthogs (3/40), elephants (3/40) and one spotted hyena. In Nguruman, where G. pallidipes flies were analyzed, the feeds were from elephants (6/13) and warthogs (5/13), while buffaloes and baboons accounted for one bloodmeal each. Only cattle blood was detected in flies caught in Busia and Uganda. Out of four flies tested in Mbita Point, Suba District in western Kenya, one had fed on cattle, the other three on the Nile monitor lizard. These results demonstrate that cattle will form an integral part of a control strategy for trypanosomiasis in Busia and Uganda, while different approaches are required for Serengeti and Nguruman ecosystems, where wildlife abound and are the major component of the tsetse fly food source.

Abstract: Pastoral communities in arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) of Kenya depend on livestock for their livelihood. However, these ASALs are characterized by temporal and spatial climatic variation, making availability of resources uneven. Mobility is a key strategy used by pastoralists to efficiently utilize available resources, notably pasture and water. This strategy is being interrupted by a vicious cycle of livestock rustling/raiding. This study was conducted to elucidate the effects of livestock rustling and other household characteristics on migration decisions and herd size amongst pastoralists in Baringo District in Kenya. A sample of 110 pastoralists were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. Binary probit model was used to explain the probability of migrating while ordinary least square was used to explain effects on herd size. Gender and age of the household head are significant (P < 0.1 and P < 0.05, respectively) determinants of migration, whereas both also significantly (P < 0.1) influenced herd size. Intensity of rustling, and loss of livestock to drought and/or disease also significantly (P < 0.01) influence the decision to migrate. Level of education had significant (P < 0.1) and negative influence on herd size, whereas size of household had significant (P < 0.01) and positive impact on herd size. Non-livestock income had significant (P < 0.05) and negative influence on migration and herd size. The practice of livestock rustling, rampant amongst pastoralist communities in Kenya and sometimes occurs across borders, influences pastoralists' decision to migrate and also their herd sizes. It destabilizes communities and undermines their normal livelihood strategies, thus contributing to increased poverty. Increasing the level of development in pastoral areas and formulation of appropriate policies will help in controlling the rustling menace.

Abstract: In a screening for natural products with mosquito larvicidal activities, the endophytic fungus Podospora sp. isolated from the plant Laggera alata (Asteraceae) was conspicuous. Two xanthones, sterigmatocystin (1) and secosterigmatocystin (2), and an anthraquinone derivative (3) 13-hydroxyversicolorin B were isolated after fermentation on M2 medium. These compounds were characterised using spectroscopic and X-ray analysis and examined against third instar larvae of Anopheles gambiae. The results demonstrated that compound 1 was the most potent one with LC50 and LC90 values of 13.3 and 73.5 ppm, respectively. Over 95% mortality was observed at a concentration 100 ppm after 24 h. These results compared farvourably with the commercial larvicide pylarvex® that showed 100% mortality at the same concentration. Compound 3 was less potent and had an LC50 of 294.5 ppm and over 95% mortality was achieved at a concentration of 1,000 ppm. Secosterigmatocystin (2) revealed relatively weak activity and therefore LC values were not determined.

Abstract: Cyperus papyrus, a fast-growing tropical sedge from central, eastern, and southern Africa (Fig. 1) forms extensive wetlands that are important to biodiversity and the livelihoods of millions of people. Cyperus papyrus (from here on ‘‘papyrus’’) can grow as high as 5 m, and it occurs in nearly monoculture stands, creating extensive areas of wetlands in river valleys and near lake edges in eastern, central and southern Africa. In this project update, we review the ecological characteristics and livelihood services of papyrus wetlands in East Africa and describe the interdisciplinary research project ‘‘The Ecology of Livelihoods in East African Wetlands’’ (ECOLIVE) that investigates the functioning of these wetlands. The ultimate goal of the ECOLIVE project is to examine how ecology and hydrology interact with livelihood activities in order to understand how sustainability of ecosystem services can be achieved. Generally, papyrus wetlands occur in river valleys and on lake edges between latitudes 17 N and 29 S and between sea level and an altitude of about 2,000 m (Jones and Muthuri 1985). Papyrus does not occur in West Africa, probably because of the stronger hydrological seasonality of the rivers there (Thompson 1976, 1985). The total surface area covered by papyrus wetlands is not known and also varies seasonally. Extensive papyrus wetlands are found e.g. in the Sudd wetlands in Sudan, Lake Chad, around Lake Victoria, at Lake Naivasha in Kenya, Lake Kioga and many other wetlands in Uganda, in the Akagera river floodplain in Rwanda and the Malagarasi-Muyovosi wetlands in Tanzania, along the major rivers in Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe, in the Okavango delta in Botswana, and the Zambezi delta in Mozambique. The importance of papyrus is not only a result of its vast areal coverage. Papyrus wetlands also provide vital ecosystem functions and services for millions of people and form a habitat for unique forms of biodiversity such as the Sitatunga or marshbuck (Tragelaphus spekei) and several bird species that are endemic to A. van Dam (&) UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, The Netherlands e-mail: a.vandam@unesco-ihe.org

Abstract: Tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum ) is popular in fresh market and processing industries. Production of tomatoes under greenhouse conditions is gaining popularity in Kenyan highlands. Yields are limited by poor soil nutrition with nitrogen being the most limiting nutrient required in large quantities. The study investigated the effects of nitrogen levels and spacing on tomato fruit yield and quality in a Quonset greenhouse at 2238m above sea level. Plants were grown in a greenhouse at Egerton University, Department of Horticulture research and demonstration field in two seasons. The first season commenced in October 2002, to February 2003, the second in February 2003, to July 2003. The nitrogen rates 0, 40, 80 and 120 kg N ha -1 applied in two equal splits. Spacing was 40x30, 40x40, 50x30 and 50x40 cm. The experimental design was a Randomized Complete Block Design, with a Split-Plot arrangement with main plots as nitrogen levels and spacing the sub plots in three replications. Fruit yield and quality data were taken after each harvesting. Number of marketable fruits was significantly affected by spacing in both seasons. Nitrogen of 80 kg ha -1 and spacing of 40 x 30 cm had the highest mean fruit numbers in season 2. Nitrogen of 80 kg N ha -1 and spacing of 50 x 30 cm had the highest fruit yield in season 1. Marketable unit fruit weight was highest in season 1, at 50 x 40 cm. The study was significant to farmers producing tomatoes under greenhouse, to maximize on profits by scaling down nitrogen fertilizer use to attain high yields and quality of marketable tomato fruits using appropriate spacing.

Abstract: Background: Vector control in the highlands of western Kenya has resulted in a significant reduction of malaria transmission and a change in the vectorial system. Climate variability as a result of events such as El Nino increases the highlands suitability for malaria transmission. Surveillance and monitoring is an important component of early transmission risk identification and management. However, below certain disease transmission thresholds, traditional tools for surveillance such as entomological inoculation rates may become insensitive. A rapid diagnostic kit comprising Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite surface protein and merozoite surface protein antibodies in humans was tested for early detection of transmission surges in the western Kenya highlands during an El Nino event (October 2009-February 2010). Methods: Indoor resting female adult malaria vectors were collected in western Kenya highlands in four selected villages categorized into two valley systems, the U-shaped (Iguhu and Emutete) and the V-shaped valleys (Marani and Fort Ternan) for eight months. Members of the Anopheles gambiae complex were identified by PCR. Blood samples were collected from children 6-15 years old and exposure to malaria was tested using a circum-sporozoite protein and merozoite surface protein immunchromatographic rapid diagnostic test kit. Sporozoite ELISA was conducted to detect circum-sporozoite protein, later used for estimation of entomological inoculation rates. Results: Among the four villages studied, an upsurge in antibody levels was first observed in October 2009. Plasmodium falciparum sporozoites were then first observed in December 2009 at Iguhu village and February 2010 at Emutete. Despite the upsurge in Marani and Fort Ternan no sporozoites were detected throughout the eight month study period. The antibody-based assay had much earlier transmission detection ability than the sporozoitebased assay. The proportion of An. arabiensis among An. gambiae s.l. ranged from 2.9-66.7% indicating a rearrangement of the sibling species of the An. gambiae s.l complex. This is possibly an adaptation to insecticide interventions and climate change. Conclusion: The changing malaria transmission rates in the western Kenya highlands will lead to more unstable transmission, decreased immunity and a high vulnerability to epidemics unless surveillance tools are improved and effective vector control is sustained.

Abstract: Striga hermonthica a major biotic constraint to cereal production can be controlled by trap crops. Soybean cultivars vary in ability to stimulate suicidal germination of the weed. An experiment was conducted to select soybean (Glycine max) varieties with the ability to stimulate germination of S. hermonthica seeds. Experiments were conducted with strigol Nijmegen 1® (GR 24), a synthetic stimulant, as a check. In the pot and field experiments, maize (variety WH507) was intercropped with soybeans. Variation occurred among soybean varieties in inducing germination of S. hermonthica. The relative germination induction by soybean varieties ranged from 8% to 66% compared to 70% for synthetic stimulant check. Varieties TGX1448-2E, Tgm 1576, TGX1876-4E and Tgm 1039 had the highest relative germination. Soybean varieties TGX 1831-32E, Tgm944, Tgm 1419 and Namsoy4m had high stimulation but low attachment. Intercropping maize with soybeans in the field led to a low S. hermonthica count and high maize yield.

Abstract: Riparian buffer strip guidelines are under scrutiny in the River Njoro Watershed in Kenya. This study investigated soil properties (bulk density, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus) in different land use types (small scale agriculture in recent settlements, mixed agriculture in established peri-urban settlements, large- scale commercial agriculture, and the gazetted forest reference condition) and their adjacent buffer strips. Bulk density, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus within 30-m riparian buffer strips adjacent to recent settlement landuseareasweresimilar tothoseofthegazettedforest reference condition, but only bulk density of the buffer strips adjacent to peri-urban and commercial agriculture land use areas were similar to the gazetted forest reference condition. Phosphorus is a sensitive indicator of the impacts of human activity, as increased concen- trations were observed with increasing scale of land use activity. For riparian buffers adjacent to recent settle- ments, soil phosphorus was significantly higher in buffers narrower than 30 m (5.01 mg P kg −1 )t han gazetted forest (3.40 mg P kg −1 )b ut not significantly different for riparian buffers wider than 30 m (3.81 mg P kg −1 ) compared to gazetted forest. Based on the research, it is recommended that policies governing riparian buffer strips become (1) stricter, with the current "maximum" of 30 m considered a minimum; and (2) adaptive, with 30 m used in small- scale agricultural areas, and wider riparian buffer strips used in medium- and large-scale agricultural areas.

Abstract: The aim of this study was to estimate genetic and phenotypic parameters for growth and survival traits of Sahiwal cattle in Kenya and determine their relationship to milk production and fertility. Performance records of 5,681 animals were obtained from the National Sahiwal Stud and the traits considered were: birth weight (kilogrammes), weaning weight (kilogrammes), pre-weaning average daily gain (grammes per day), post-weaning average daily gain (grammes per day), yearling weight (kilogrammes), mature weight at 36 months (kilogrammes), pre-weaning survival rate (SR), post-weaning survival rate (PSR), lactation milk yield (kilogrammes), age at first calving (days), and calving interval (days). The data was analysed using univariate and bivariate animal model based on restricted maximum likelihood methods, incorporating all known pedigree relationship among animals. The additive direct effects were more pronounced than maternal genetic effects in early and in post-yearling growth performance. The additive genetic variance and heritabilities were low for SR and PSR. The correlation between direct additive genetic and maternal genetic effect were negative for pre-yearling traits. Genetic and phenotypic correlations among growth traits and between growth and milk yield were positive, whilst those between growth and fertility were weak and negative. Correlations between survival and growth were generally low and positive. The estimates obtained in this study provide the necessary technical parameters for evaluating alternative breeding programmes and selection schemes for sustainable improvement of Sahiwal cattle.

Abstract: Hydro-distilled essential oil from Kenyan Piper capense (Piperaceae) was analysed by gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC?MS) and evaluated for larvicidal activity against the malaria vector, Anopheles gambiae. The oil consisted mainly of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons which accounted for 43.9% of the oil. The major sesquiterpenes were δ-cadinene (16.82%), β-bisabolene (5.65%), and bicyclogermacrene (3.30%). The oil also had appreciable amounts of monoterpene hydrocarbons (30.64%), including β-pinene (7.24%) and α-phellandrene (4.76%), and arylpropanoids (8.64%), including myristicin (4.26%). The oil showed larvicidal activity against third instar larvae of A. gambiae, with LC 50 and LC 90 values of 34.9 and 85.0 ppm, respectively. Most of the larvae died within the first few hours. The high larvicidal activity of this oil was indicated by the fact that over 80% mortality was observed at a concentration of 100 ppm after 24 h. These results compared favourably with the commercial larvicide pylarvex® which had LC 50 and LC 90 values of 3.7 and 7.8 ppm, respectively. Application of this oil or of products derived from it to larval habitats may lead to promising results in malaria and mosquito management programmes.

Abstract: The push–pull technology (PPT) has widely been disseminated to control insect stemborers [Chilo partellus and Busseola fusca] and Striga weeds [Striga hermonthica and Striga asiatica] in maize fields in Kenya. This study examined farmers' preferences for various dissemination pathways in order to proffer better targeting of resources in an optimal dissemination strategy. The pathways considered were public meetings (barazas), radio, farmer field schools (FFS), field days (FD), farmer teachers (FT), fellow farmers (FF) and printed materials. Using a weighted score index and ordered probit regression, the different pathways were sequentially ranked as FD, FT, FFS, FF, print materials, Radio, and barazas. Marginal effects from the ordered probit regression model showed that farmers had the least preference for baraza and radio pathways. The farmer categories with the highest preference for particular pathways were: less educated farmers for FD, farmers with small land sizes for FT, farmers belonging to group...

Abstract: Scope: Caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) is an active constituent of honeybee propolis inhibiting nuclear factor (NF)-kB. The aims of our study were to provide new data on the functional relevance and mechanisms underlying the role of CAPE in regulating inflammatory processes at the epithelial interface in the gut and to determine the structure/activity relationship of CAPE. Methods and results: CAPE significantly inhibited TNF-induced IP-10 expression in intestinal epithelial cells. Using various analogues, we demonstrated that substitution of catechol hydroxyl groups and addition of one extra hydroxyl group on ring B reversed the functional activity of CAPE to inhibit IP-10 production. The anti-inflammatory potential of CAPE was confirmed in ileal tissue explants and embryonic fibroblasts derived from TNF DARE/1 mice. Interestingly, CAPE inhibited both TNF- and LPS-induced IP-10 production in a dosedependent manner, independently of p38 MAPK, HO-1 and Nrf2 signaling pathways. We found that CAPE did not inhibit TNF-induced IkB phosphorylation/degradation or nuclear translocation of RelA/p65, but targeted downstream signaling events at the level of transcription factor recruitment to the gene promoter. Conclusion: This study reveals the structure‐activity effects and anti-inflammatory potential of CAPE in the intestinal epithelium.

Abstract: Plastic bags mostly made of polyethylene (PE) cause pollution as solid waste due to their non-degradability nature. Initiation of a degradative process by enhanced photo-oxidation is a possible method for an accelerated degradation. This paper presents temperature treatment effects on PE films where photodegradation was initiated using ultraviolet (UV) irradiation in the ranges of 200–300 nm and 300–400 nm for 2 hr. Effects of temperature of 40°C and 55°C on non-UV-irradiated and UV-irradiated PE films processed by conventional methods were investigated and evaluated after 50 hr, 150 hr, and 350 hr of temperature exposure. The effects of UV wavelength range irradiation on the degradation were deduced. Measuring the dynamic moduli using a dynamic mechanical analyzer monitored the degradation. The decrease in average storage modulus was 62% with treatment at 55°C, higher than the 16% drop at 40°C for unirradiated samples after 350-hr exposure. Cross-linking in UV-exposed samples, characterized by an increas...

Abstract: The national maize production levels in Kenya have been declining from an all time high of over 34 million bags to about 25 million bags over the years. The situation is made worse by agricultural reforms which have affected small scale farmers in Western Province, which is one of Kenya's food baskets. This paper therefore addresses the challenges facing the small scale maize farmers in Western Province of Kenya in the agricultural reform era. Two hundred small scale farmers were selected through systematic sampling from Lugari, Bungoma, Mt. Elgon and Busia districts which were purposively selected. In addition one hundred extension staff was selected through systematic sampling. The small scale farmers were interviewed with the help of an interview schedule containing open and closed ended questions. While the extension staff filled a self administered questionnaire containing open and closed ended questions. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics with the help of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The results revealed that small scale farmers in Western Province lack awareness of improved agricultural practices and technical knowhow because the extension staff to farmer ratio is high. They also lacked finance, experienced high interest rates on credit facilities and uncertainty of the right seed to use due to flooding of the market by many seed companies.

Abstract: Hyparrhenia rufa is a thatching grass commonly found throughout the tropics where it also serves as valuable cattle fodder and border grass to prevent soil erosion (Skerman & Riveros, 1990). In June 2010, we observed some H. rufa …

Abstract: Bean production in Kenya barely meets half the demand because of low soil fertility among other factors. While use of rhizobia inoculants can substantially increase bean yields, less than 1% of the farming population is aware of inoculants. The objectives of this study were, one, to isolate and evaluate indigenous rhizobia populations in two agro ecological zones in Njoro, and two, to test the efficacy of the isolates against commercial rhizobia inoculants in relation to nodulation and shoot dry matter of Rose Coco bean cultivar. Rhizobia isolates were collected from field 8 of Egerton University and Kerma farm in Njoro. The isolates were tested against Biofix (market available inoculant) and USDA 9030 (pure culture of Rhizobia tropici) under greenhouse conditions. Rhizobia inoculation had no effect on shoot dry weight (SDW), nodule dry weight (NDW) and shoot N content. However, significant differences were observed among rhizobia strains used, where Biofix produced a higher NDW and Kerma isolate resulted in higher shoot N content than other strains. Symbiotic effectiveness of 111%, 107%, 97% and 92% was observed for Kerma isolate, Field 8 isolate, Biofix and USDA 9030 respectively. Our results indicate that rhizobia isolates from Njoro had comparable symbiotic effectiveness to commercial inoculants and should be tested further using other bean varieties to assess their potential.

Abstract: The study sought to determine whether pastoralists have resorted to sale of livestock as a form of insurance against commercialization of cattle rustling in which well structured and managed cartels have organised more intense and frequent cattle raids on pastoralist, and how their decisions have affected their herd size. The study was conducted among the pastoral Baringo community of Kenya. A sample size of 110 households was selected using multi-stage sampling procedures and interviewed using a questionnaire. Binary Probit Model and Ordinary Least Squares were used in the analysis. Results indicated that cattle rustling, particularly in its predatory state significantly contributes to spontaneous sale of livestock even under very low prices that in themselves could be described as raiding. The results further indicated that the number of livestock lost through cattle rustling dominated livestock sale and hence reduced herd size and the numbers of livestock available for sale. The insecurity generated by cattle rustling, coupled with the poor marketing infrastructure make market inaccessible by both buyers and sellers, resulting to increased poverty and dependency amongst the pastoralists. Consequently, pastoralism has become a source of misery rather than source of livelihood.

Abstract: The objective of the present study was to determine the optimal culling strategy in relation to biological and economic efficiency (BE and EE, respectively) and annualized net revenue (AN) in the Japanese Black cow–calf production system with special reference to the beef quality of culled cows. The herd model focused on two ways of mating: one-mating trial system (ONE) and continuous-mating trial system (CON). ONE assumed that heifers that fail to conceive are culled and cows that fail to conceive are culled at weaning of their calves, while CON assumed that mating continues until all females theoretically conceive. Least square means of carcass data of Japanese Black cows collected from a cooperative farm in Japan were used to estimate the carcass price of a cow by parity and Beef Marbling Standard (BMS) number. The simulation, assuming the current production situation in Japan, indicated that sales of culled cows accounted for 0·10–0·20 of total sales and was an important element in total production. Comparisons between ONE and CON showed that production efficiency in the current situation is higher in CON. The BE, EE and AN were higher in CON than in ONE. The two economic indicators were less sensitive to changes in annual discount rate but highly sensitive to changes in female calf price and BMS number of cows, indicating the importance of considering fluctuations in calf price and potential quality of culled cows’ carcasses when estimating the economically optimal parity of culling. The three indicators derived different optimal solutions even in the same mating trial systems, stressing the importance of choice of production indicators when determining the culling strategy and evaluating animal production.

Abstract: Animal recording is an interactive process that involves several practices. The efficiency of the process is essential to ensure the utility of outcomes necessary for sustainable participation. Most evaluation approaches define efficiency in economic terms. Animal recording systems lack outputs of direct economic benefits; hence, efficiency evaluation based on utility derived from the records would be more laudable. In that case, a system is considered efficient when outcome-utility-dependent participation is sustained. Approaches for evaluating efficiency based on the utility of outputs are, however, unavailable. The current study presents an approach for evaluating the efficiency of animal recording based on output utility using the institutional analysis and development framework. The approach evaluates efficiency by incorporating institutional issues influencing the operations of the system and its outcomes. It considers animal recording as an action arena with various actors in three action situations, namely: animal identification and registration, pedigree and performance recording and animal evaluation and information utilization. The variables include the positions occupied by actors, their actions, the outcomes associated with the actions, the level of control over choice, available information and the cost and benefits of engagement. As an interactive process, animal recording has rules that order relationships between actors. It also exists within a biophysical system and community whose attributes, combined with the rules, influence the actions and outcomes of recording. These are evaluated by looking at rule formation structures, enforcement and compliance and the level of interaction between the recording system and other biophysical characteristics and the community for their effects on outcomes, their utility and sustainability of recording. Participatory tools, Stakeholder matrix and Venn diagrams are used to identify the variables, quantify their interactions and link them to outputs. The applicability of the approach is tested using a case where information systems are imperfect. The approach successfully identifies missing actors within the action arena, poor rule conformance due to weak enforcement agencies and the absence of rules that govern outcomes and ensure the utility of outcomes as hindrances to the utility of recording and hence the efficiency of the system. It may therefore be used to evaluate the efficiency of systems whose outputs do not have a direct market value and in situations where quantitative market information is scarce.

Abstract: Soil fertility depletion and the attendant declining agricultural productivity in western Kenya have led to many attempts to develop and popularize integrated nutrient management (INM) technologies that could restore soil fertility and improve productivity. INM bridges the gap between high external input agriculture and extreme forms of traditional low external input agriculture. The main components of INM are chemical fertilizers, animal manure, improved fallows and green manures. It is, however, not well understood why farmers who rely on agriculture for their livelihoods either do not adopt or adopt these technologies slowly. However, it is acknowledged that soil fertility depletion is an insidious and slow process, hence farmers’ perception of severity of the problem and associated yield losses are critical in deciding adoption of soil fertility-enhancing technologies. The objective of this study was to evaluate farmers’ perceptions of soil fertility depletion and assess its contribution to adoption of INM practices. Data were collected from a random sample of 331 households in Vihiga and Siaya districts and analysed by descriptive statistics and logit model. Results showed that most households (92.4%) perceived declining soil fertility to be responsible for the low crop yields and difference in perception between the two districts was insignificant (P = 0.141). From logistic analysis, farmers’ perception of extent of depletion had significant effect on the adoption of animal manure and inorganic fertilizers. Other socio-economic factors militated against adoption of INM components.

Abstract: Infection of 10 dairy goats of mixed breed with Staphylococcus aureus resulted in changes in concentration of certain analytes in milk, which became more pronounced as the infection progressed. Somatic cell counts reached a peak increase of 147% of pre-infection levels, free fatty acids 49%, sodium 14%, Chloride 16% and Copper 47%. Decreases in milk concentration included lactose at a maximum 8%, iron at 47%, potassium at 10% and Calcium at 12% of pre-infection levels. Protein, nitrogen and magnesium levels appeared unaffected by infection. Following curative treatment, changes in the analytes resolved towards normal levels by the fourth week post-treatment.

Abstract: The aim of the study undertaken at Mt. Elgon National Park was to determine the chemical composition and variation of some mineral elements in saltlicks utilized by elephants in Mt. Elgon National Park. Laboratory analysis was done for individual identification and determination of the concentration for sodium potassium, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus. Rock samples were processed using Double Acid Technique. The elephants of Mt. Elgon have been engaging in earth eating behaviour. regular visits to saltlicks located in caves is as a result of some of the mineral elements such as sodium potassium and calcium. The park management could overcome the problem of elephants entering the saltlicks by having sodium and potassium mineral supplement policy for the park.