Abstract: We propose that through the formalization of concepts related to trust, a more accurate model of trust can be implemented. This paper presents a new model of trust that is based on the formalization of reputation. A multidisciplinary approach is taken to understanding the nature of trust and its relation to reputation. Through this approach, a practical definition of reputation is adopted from sociological contexts and a model of reputation is designed and presented. Reputation is defined as role fulfillment. To formalize reputation, it is necessary to formalize the expectations placed upon an agent within a particular multi-agent system (MAS). In this case, the agents are part of an informationsharing society. Five roles are defined along with the ways in which these roles are objectively fulfilled. Through the measurement of role fulfillment, a vector representing reputation can be developed. This vector embodies the magnitude of the reputation and describes the patterns of behavior associated with the direction of the vector. Experiments are conducted to verify the sensibility of the proposed models for role fulfillment and overall reputation. The simulation results show that the roles, defined for building reputation in an information-sharing MAS environment, react to different agent and user actions in a manner consistent with the formal definitions.

Abstract: The paper investigates the impact of trust on market efficiency and bilateral contracts. We prove that a market in which agents are trusted to the degree they deserve to be trusted is as efficient as a market with complete trustworthiness. In other words, complete trustworthiness is not a necessary condition for market efficiency. We prove that distrust could significantly reduce market efficiency, and we show how to solve the problem by using appropriately designed multiagent contracts. The problem of trust is studied in the context of a bilateral negotiation game between a buyer and a seller. It is shown that if the seller’s trust equals the buyer’s trustworthiness, then the social welfare, the amount of trade, and the agents’ utility functions are maximized. The paper also studies the efficiency of advance payment contracts as a tool for improving trustworthiness. It is proved that advance payment contracts maximize the social welfare and the amount of trade. Finally, the paper studies the problem of how to make agents truthfully reveal their level of trustworthiness. An incentive–compatible contract is defined, in which agents do not benefit from lying about their trustworthiness. The analysis and the solutions proposed in this paper could help agent designers avoid many market failures and produce efficient interaction mechanisms.

Abstract: Although there are many extant agent–based systems for negotiation in e–commerce, the negotiation strategies of agents in these systems are mostly static. This article presents a model for designing negotiation agents that make adjustable rates of concession by reacting to changing market situations. To determine the amount of concession for each trading cycle, these market–driven agents are guided by four mathematical functions of eagerness, trading time, trading opportunity, and competition. Trading opportunity is determined by considering: (i) number of trading partners, (ii) spreads—differences in utilities between an agent and its trading partners, and (iii) probability of completing a deal. Competition is determined by the probability that an agent is not considered the most preferred trader by other negotiating parties. Motivated by factors such as corporate policies and resource needs, eagerness represents an agent’s desire to complete a deal. Agents with different time sensitivity to deadlines employ different trading strategies by making different rates of concession at different stages of negotiation. In this article, three classes of strategies with respect to remaining trading time are discussed. Theoretical analyses show that market–driven agents are designed to make prudent and appropriate amounts of concession for a given market situation.

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to compare the outcomes between arthroscopir repair and mini-open repair of medium and large rotator cuff tears in which arthroscopic repair was technically unsuccessful. We evaluated 76 patients of full-thickness rotator cuff tears, among them 42 patients had all-arthroscopic and 34 patients had mini-open salvage repairs. Patients who had acromioclavicular arthritis, subscapularis tear, or instability were excluded. There were 39 males and 37 females with mean age of 56 years (range,42 to 75 years). At a mean follow-up of 39 months (range, 24 to 64 months), the results of both groups were compared with regard to the UCLA and ASES shoulder rating scale s. Shoulder scores improved in all ratings in both groups (p > 0.05). Overall, sixty-six patients showed excellent or gr)of and ten patients showed fair or poor scores by the UCLA scale. Seventy-two patients satisfactorily returned to prior activity. Four showed unsatisfactory return. The range of motion, strength, and patient's satisfaction were improved postoperatively. There were no difference in shoulder scores, pain, and activity return between the arthroscopic and mini-open salvage groups (p > 0.05). However, Patients with larger size tear showed lower shoulder scores and less predictive recovery of the strength and function (p

Abstract: Conversation protocols are meant to achieve certain tasks or to bring about certain state of affairs in the world. Therefore, one may identify the landmarks or the state of affairs that must be brought about during the execution of a protocol in order to achieve its goal. Accordingly, the most important aspect of protocols is these landmarks rather than the communicative actions needed to achieve the landmarks. We show that families of conversation protocols can be expressed formally as partially ordered landmarks where each landmark is characterized by propositions that are true in the state represented by that landmark. Dialogue in natural languages is regarded as joint activity. Conversation protocols in multi-agent systems are treated as dialogue templates and are composed using speech acts from natural language dialogues. As such, we treat conversation protocols as joint action expressions and gainfully apply existing formal theories of dialogue, specifically the Joint Intention Theory, to protocols and their compositions. Conversation protocols may require agents to communicate with groups as well as individuals. However, most contemporary agent communication languages, notably FIPA and KQML, have either no provision or no well-defined semantics for group communication. Furthermore, the research on protocols so far does not correctlymore » incorporate groups into the protocols. We give a formal semantics to group communicative acts and use it to handle group communication in a formal treatment of protocols.« less

Abstract: In this article we present SMES–SPPC, a high–performance system for intelligent extraction of structured data from free text documents. SMES–SPPC consists of a set of domain–adaptive shallow core components that are realized by means of cascaded weighted finite–state machines and generic dynamic tries. The system has been fully implemented for German; it includes morphological and on–line compound analysis, efficient POS–filtering, high–performance named–entity recognition and chunk parsing based on a novel divide–and–conquer strategy. The whole approach proved to be very useful for processing free word order languages such as German. SMES–SPPC has a good performance (more than 6000 words per second on standard PC environments) and achieves high linguistic coverage, especially for the divide–and–conquer parsing strategy, where we obtained an f–measure of 87.14% on unseen data.

Abstract: Conversations are sequences of messages exchanged among interacting agents. For conversations to be meaningful, agents ought to follow commonly known specifications limiting the types of messages that can be exchanged at any point in the conversation. These specifications are usually implemented using conversation policies (which are rules of inference) or conversation protocols (which are predefined conversation templates). In this article we present a semantic model for specifying conversations using conversation policies. This model is based on the principles that the negotiation and uptake of shared social commitments entail the adoption of obligations to action, which indicate the actions that agents have agreed to perform. In the same way, obligations are retracted based on the negotiation to discharge their corresponding shared social commitments. Based on these principles, conversations are specified as interaction specifications that model the ideal sequencing of agent participations negotiating the execution of actions in a joint activity. These specifications not only specify the adoption and discharge of shared commitments and obligations during an activity, but also indicate the commitments and obligations that are required (as preconditions) or that outlive a joint activity (as postconditions). We model the Contract Net Protocol as an example of the specification of conversations in a joint activity.

Abstract: We address long–term coalitions that are formed of both customer and vendor agents. We present a coalition formation mechanism designed at the agent level as a decision problem. The proposed mechanism is analyzed at both system and agent levels. Our results show that the coalition formation mechanism is beneficial for both the system—it reaches an equilibrium state—and for the agents—their gains highly increase over time.

Abstract: This paper presents a formal framework and outlines a method that autonomous agents can use to negotiate the semantics of their communication language at run-time. Such an ability is needed in open multi-agent systems so that agents can ensure they understand the implications of the utterances that are being made and so that they can tailor the meaning of the primitives to best fit their prevailing circumstances. To this end, the semantic space framework provides a systematic means of classifying the primitives along multiple relevant dimensions. This classification can then be used by the agents to structure their negotiation (or semantic fixing) process so that they converge to the mutually agreeable semantics that are necessary for coherent social interactions.

Abstract: In this paper, we propose a reputation–oriented reinforcement learning algorithm for buying and selling agents in electronic market environments. We take into account the fact that multiple selling agents may offer the same good with different qualities. In our approach, buying agents learn to avoid the risk of purchasing low–quality goods and to maximize their expected value of goods by dynamically maintaining sets of reputable sellers. Selling agents learn to maximize their expected profits by adjusting product prices and by optionally altering the quality of their goods. Modeling the reputation of sellers allows buying agents to focus on those sellers with whom a certain degree of trust has been established. We also include the ability for buying agents to optionally explore the marketplace in order to discover new reputable sellers. As detailed in the paper, we believe that our proposed strategy leads to improved satisfaction for buyers and sellers, reduced communication load, and robust systems. In addition, we present preliminary experimental results that confirm some potential advantages of the proposed algorithm, and outline planned future experimentation to continue the evaluation of the model.

Abstract: This article presents a method to solve the rotated and scaling character recognition problem using Fourier descriptors and genetic neural networks. The contours of character image are extracted and separated between the outer contour and inner or loop contours. The loop contours are a special characteristic of Thai characters, called the head of the character. The special features of Thai characters (loop contours) are used at the rough classification stage, and Fourier descriptors with genetic neural networks are used at the fine classification stage. The Fourier descriptors detect the outer contour of a character and it is fed to network. These features are recognized by a multilayer neural network. Genetic algorithms (GAs) are utilized to help compute the weights of the neural network optimally and reduce uncertain states in the neural networks output. Experimental results have shown that the combination of the Fourier descriptors with genetic neural networks, loop features, and local curvature charateristics of similar characters are powerful tools for successfully classifying Thai characters. The recognition rate by this method is 99.12% for 1200 examples of handwritten Thai words (a total of 13,500 characters) written by 60 persons.

Abstract: This article proposes a first–order logic axiomatic description of some basic ontological notions underlying the meaning of different types of temporal constraints about repeated events. The article also shows that such an ontology provides an homogeneous framework that can be used to model and compare the intended meaning of different formalisms in the artificial intelligence and temporal databases literature which deal with user–defined calendar dates and/or qualitative and quantitative constraints between different types of repeated events.

Abstract: Tone information is very important to speech recognition in a tonal language such as Thai. In this article, we present a method for isolated Thai tone recognition. First, we define three sets of tone features to capture the characteristics of Thai tones and employ a feedforward neural network to classify tones based on these features. Next, we describe several experiments using the proposed features. The experiments are designed to study the effect of initial consonants, vowels, and final consonants on tone recognition. We find that there are some correlations between tones and other phonemes, and the recognition performances are satisfying. A human perception test is then conducted to judge the recognition rate. The recognition rate of a human is much lower than that of a machine. Finally, we explore various combination schemes to enhance the recognition rate. Further improvements are found in most experiments.

Abstract: Purpose Displaced lateral end fracture of clavicle and acromioclavicular dislocation type Ⅲ∼Ⅵ may be required surgical treatment. Material and Methods : From May 1998 to March 2001, we operated with Welter plate with minimal incision by one surgeon. Immediately, pendulum and passive exercise was initiated after surgery. The shoulder function was evaluated using UCLA score. Average follow up was on 28(12∼45) months. Results : All 11 patients were regained satisfactory function. Average UCLA score was 31.9(29~35) at last follow up. Conclusion . The merit of Welter plate fixation with minimal incision is simple technique, reduced surgical time, smaller scar than large plate, strong fixation, early exercise, reduced implant failure. The disadvantage is expensive, skin irritatatation by long hook. But Welter plate fixation with minimal incision is a good method of internal fixation and excellent clinical result in surgical treatment of type H displaced lateral end fracture of the clavicle and type Ⅲ∼Ⅵ acromioclavicular dislocation.

Abstract: Two similar multi–agent systems have been designed to address the issue of information sharing within a multi–agent system. This paper examines the architectural components that have been added to our information–sharing societies, ACORN and MP3. Through this exploration, we conclude that these components and their underlying concepts can be added to other information–retrieval societies. ACORN consists of a set of information–sharing locations referred to as cafes. Cafes are defined as meeting locations for like–minded agents. Like–minded agents are defined as agents that share a common set of interests. As an example, a cafe may contain agents that are interested in information relating to cars. A dynamic cafe clustering method is developed. The performance evaluation of the proposed structure for the cafe is presented. The concept of a fat/thin agent architecture is introduced. This agent architecture allows for minimizing network traffic as agents traverse the network in search of or distribution of knowledge. The directory server component is presented along with its relation to the fat/thin agent architecture. Finally, an anonymity service provider which allows anonymity for users is introduced. The MP3 society exists with the sole purpose of finding MP3s throughout a given network. Through this society, the core design issues of agent verification and agent validation are addressed and solutions are presented through respective interface components.

Abstract: In this article we present the design of an ACL for a dynamic system of agents. The ACL includes a set of conversation performatives extended with operations to register, create, and terminate agents. The main design goal at the agent–level is to provide only knowledge–level primitives that are well integrated with the dynamic nature of the system. This goal has been achieved by defining an anonymous interaction protocol which enables agents to request and supply knowledge without considering symbol–level issues concerning management of agent names, routing, and agent reachability. This anonymous interaction protocol exploits a distributed facilitator schema which is hidden at the agent–level and provides mechanisms for registering capabilities of agents and delivering requests according to the competence of agents. We present a formal specification of the ACL and of the underlying architecture, exploiting an algebra of actors, and illustrate it with the help of a graphical notation. This approach provides the basis for discussing dynamic primitives in ACL and for studying properties of dynamic multi agent systems, for example concerning the behavior of agents and the correctness of their conversation policies.

Abstract: I welcome the opportunity to comment on Frawley’s paper. Frawley puts forward the view that the organisation of the mental code for language can be characterised by the distinction between logic and control in algorithms, as put forward by computational programming. Further, his paper proposes that this distinction can accurately characterise different types of language disorders. I will focus on two issues that are raised in Frawley’s proposal: First, the claim that Specific Language Impairment [SLI] in children can be characterised by a deficit in ‘‘logic of mental computation’’; in other words, the logic component of the mental algorithms for language. The second issue concerns the implications of this characterisation for the ‘‘innate’’ underpinnings of language, and the domain-specificity—a current highly controversial issue in cognitive science. Frawley takes up my hypothesis (van der Lely 1994) that the grammatical problems in children with SLI are caused by a deficit in the syntactic component itself. First, this hypothesis departed from the majority, if not all, previous proposals of the cause of SLI. Based on the view that general-purpose mechanisms become specialised through experience during development (Elman et al. 1996; Karmiloff-Smith 1998), some researchers argue that SLI is caused through impairments in processing the input, and, or in limited cognitive

Abstract: Frawley raises a very interesting issue: Can we draw on lessons learnt in computer science about different types of control processes, and the distinction between ‘‘control’’ and ‘‘logic’’ (Kowalski 1979), to shed light on the human mind? Frawley concentrates discussion on unit-level control, i.e., the control of the flow of information across modules, and the representations (logic) that exist within modules. He classifies a group of developmental syndromes (e.g., Williams, autism) as suffering from an across module control problem in contrast to, e.g., SLI (specific language impaired) children, who suffer from a within module impairment of linguistic knowledge. Frawley identifies one of the requirements of across module communication as being explicit, and finds our (Dienes and Perner 1999) attempt to explicate the meaning of the implicit explicit distinction particularly helpful. Frawley gives an admirably clear and succinct rendition of our account of predication and factuality explicitness, and uses it for his purposes. Frawley suggests that intermodular processing requires predication and factuality implicitness, whereas intramodular processing can do without: ‘‘Representations that are within domains are preferentially implicit and procedural because they must apply generally (i.e., no explicit factivity). . . .By contrast, representations reported out of a domain have to be maximally explicit in order to be checked and used.’’ We wish to elaborate on this theme. Following our original article, we can illustrate predication implicitness-explicitness with the example of individual animals being classified as cats or dogs. If all that is generated is a label ‘‘cat’’ then although this represents the presented individual as a cat, it only makes the property of being a cat explicit and leaves it implicit that there is an individual of which this property of cat-ness is being predicated (predication implicit knowledge). On the other hand, the representation ‘‘This is a cat,’’ would make this predication explicit. A representation leaves its factuality implicit if it is simply taken as true by the system; it makes its factuality explicit if it can be represented as true or false or possibly true. Predication explicitness is necessary for tracking the same individual across different contexts. How might this be related to representations used within as opposed to between modules? Modules are defined to be ‘‘informationally encapsulated’’ (Fodor 1983); they operate only on certain types of information, they perform very specific operations on that information, and they do so online. By contrast, non-modular processing central processing, the global workspace (Baars 1988)—is inferentially promiscuous, dealing in principle with any type of content domain, making that information available to in principle any type of relevant processing, with in principle information coming in from any of a number of different modules about possibly different individuals. Given this idealised description, it would seem that information communicated by one module to other modules

Abstract: Purpose : We evaluated clinical result of arthroscopic and open Bankart repair in anterior shoulder instability to identify factors iuluencing operative result and prognosis. Materials & Methods . We reviewed 24 patients of anterior shoulder instability treated with arthroscopic Bankart repair in 16 cases and open Bankart repair in 8 cases. Average age was 26 years old and involved in dominant arm in 15 cases. Patients were suffered instability for 3.1 years before operation and mean follow-up was 2 year 9 months ( 1 you 9 months -4year 10 months). Results : Post operative pain was subsided in 2 weeks in arthroscopic surgery and 3 weeks in open surgery. The final range of motion after arthroscopic repair were flekion in 168" , external rotation in 54" , and internal rotation in 79, and after open repair 168" ,49" , and 78 respectively. In arthroscopic surgery,2 cases (13%) were redislocated, and 4 cases(25%) showed mild instability. In open case,1 case (11%) showed mild instability. According to function- al result by Rowe grading scale, satisfactory results were 12case (76%) in arthroscopic repair and 7 cases (88%) in open cases. Conclusions Both arthroscopic or open Bankart could get good results in the treatment of anterior instability of shoulder. In arthroscopic repair, perioperative morbidity was lower than open repair, but it needs careful rehabilitation program to prevent redislocation and to return to sports activity.

Abstract: This paper is a response to commentaries on my target paper for Computational Intelligence, ‘‘Control and Cross-Domain Mental Computation: Evidence from Language Breakdown.’’ In this response, I acknowledge certain errors in my initial construal of control and dismiss unwarranted criticisms. I then reexamine both control and certain language disorders in light of the explicitness of cross-domain communication and the visibility of representations to each other. In the end, I reassert the validity of the logic/control (visibility) distinction in mental computation and argue that the contrasts between Specific Language Impairment and Williams syndrome parallel this distinction. In my target paper for this special issue, I make the following arguments. The distinction in computation between logic and control is relevant to mental computation, and empirical evidence for this difference can be found in the way two language disorders affect linguistic behavior. The language difficulties associated with Williams syndrome appear to be crossdomain and hence problems with control. In contrast, the disorders associated with Specific Language Impairment appear to be within-domain and hence problems of logic. These differences come through especially clearly in an analysis of morphological theory and experimental performance. Language loss thus cuts broadly across mental computation— disorders that affect within-domain data structures (logic) and those that affect cross-domain information management (control). The latter disorders, moreover, are not generalized performance difficulties but specific to the control aspect of mental computation. These claims dovetail with a variety of recent advances in cognitive science and linguistics—e.g., proposals about the explicitness of cross-domain information and the implicitness of withindomain information and theoretical arguments about the organization and interaction of linguistic modules. The careful and thoughtful responses of the commentators—even the critical ones, as I hope to show—suggest to me that the foregoing arguments withstand scrutiny. Indeed, I think the claims are strengthened by a number of corrections and clarifications that emerge in the commentaries. My responses fall into four categories: (1) acknowledgment of errors and direct responses to what I see as misguided criticisms; (2) modifications of and progress on the idea of control; (3) modifications of and progress on accounts of language disorders; and (4) incommensurables—points where the commentators and I are at potentially irresolvable odds—though I try to reach out on these points for common ground.

Abstract: Recently, casting planning as propositional satisfiability (SAT) has been shown to be an efficient technique of plan synthesis. This article is a response to the recently proposed challenge of developing novel propositional encodings that are based on a combination of different types of plan refinements and characterizing the tradeoffs. We refer to these encodings as hybrid encodings. An investigation of these encodings is important, because this can give insights into what kinds of planning problems can be solved faster with hybrid encodings. Encodings based on partial–order planning and state–space planning have been reported in previous research. We propose a new type of encoding called a unifying encoding that subsumes these two encodings. We also report on several other hybrid encodings. Next, we show how the satisfiability framework can be extended to incremental planning. State–space encoding is attractive because of its lower size and causal encoding is attractive because of its highest flexibility in reordering steps. We show that hybrid encodings have a higher size and a lower flexibility in step reordering and, thus, do not combine the best of these encodings. We discuss in detail several specific planning scenarios where hybrid encodings are likely to be superior to nonhybrid encodings.

Abstract: John L. Pollock Nonmonotonic Logic and Statistical Inference 26–51 22:1, 2006 Henry E. Kyburg, Jr. and Choh Man Teng Coalitions Among Intelligent Agents: A Tractable Case 52–68 22:1, 2006 M. V. Belmonte, R. Conejo, J. L. Pérez-de-la-Cruz, and F. Triguero Word from the Guest Editors 69–72 22:2, 2006 Vivi Nastase and Stan Szpakowicz Recognizing Strong and Weak Opinion Clauses 73–99 22:2, 2006 Theresa Wilson, Janyce Wiebe, and Rebecca Hwa The Importance of Neutral Examples for Learning Sentiment 100–109 22:2, 2006 Moshe Koppel and Jonathan Schler Sentiment Classification of Movie Reviews Using Contextual Valence Shifters 110–125 22:2, 2006

Abstract: Purpose : Cubitus varus deformity has been reported to cause ulnar neuropathy. We present five cases of tardy ulnar nerve palsy due to cubitus vus and analyzed the factors related to the nerve plasy caused by the deformity. Materials and Methods : Three men and two women were reviewed retrospectively and the mean age of the patients were 26 (range, 14-38). The average interval from initial fracture to nerve palsy was 19 years (8-32 years). The severity of symptoms, according to McGowan's classification, was grade I of 2 patients, grade Ⅱ of 3 patients. Carrying angle was an average of 18。 (30° -45° ). Internal rotation angle measured by Yamamoto's method was an average of 33° (30° -45° ). Results ㆍ The mean follow-up period was 53 months (35-70 months). Elbow pain and numbness of the fingers were relieved shortly after surgery. It revealed that anterior subluxation of the nerve due to internal rotation deformity and compression of the nerve between the medially shifted medial head of triceps and the medial epicondyle. Conclusion : The major entrapment point of the nerve is the fibrous band between the two heads of the flexor carpi ulnaris. The severe internal rotation deformity may contribute the cause of tardy ulnar nerve palsy in cubitus varus deformity.

Abstract: An individual’s survival and comfort depend on the goods he or she possesses and the skills with which he can adapt the environment to his needs. His surrounding community may volunteer to add to his store of possessions or offer services. Beyond that, the individual can meet his needs only through trade with others. To negotiate a trade, the individual and a trading partner must agree upon a real-numbered value assigned to goods and services. Then monetary tokens that represent this value are exchanged for the goods or services. Through electronic commerce, i.e., the use of a computer network to enhance trade, physical distance is no longer a barrier to the search for a trading partner. A widely held view of the future is that computer networks will increase an individual’s chances of finding trading partners with goods or services that meet his need. Besides information about needed and offered goods and services, the network can transmit electronic monetary tokens that cannot be falsely generated, so they truly represent a value in lieu of goods. In some cases the goods and services themselves can be transmitted across the network, such as digital multimedia products, or organizational or reasoning services. Thus, electronic commerce is a natural tool for procuring goods and services that improve our survival and comfort. This simplified description of e-commerce provides just enough background for us to point out the opportunities and problems inherent in e-commerce, to which the papers in this issue are addressed:

Abstract: The distinction between control and logic that Frawley highlights in his article is a useful one for cognitive psychologists. Perhaps too often when psychologists characterise cognitive processes, they have focused on describing representations (logic) at the expense of describing access to those representations (control), although recent work has sought to redress this balance (see e.g., Monsell 1996; Monsell and Driver 2001). In this commentary I discuss two points that arise from the target article. The first is whether Frawley’s logic/ control distinction is truly appropriate for explaining deficits in developmental disorders. The second is whether his account is likely to pan out using the particular developmental disorders he has chosen: this area of research is a fast moving field and new findings are emerging all the time. At the end of his article, Frawley describes Nature as the ‘‘original software engineer and structured programmer,’’ and indeed the programming languages he refers to as illustrations (PROLOG, C), do require a knowledgable programmer. He then describes how a pre-programmed information processing system can exhibit two qualitatively different types of breakdown. However, there is a difficulty here. Nature does not produce a preprogrammed cognitive system but constructs a learning system, in which much of the detailed structure emerges through a development process requiring interaction with the physical and social environment. Indeed, many argue that the specialised functional components of the cognitive system are a product of development rather than a precursor to it (see e.g., Karmiloff-Smith 1992, 1998). In a sense, it is unfortunate that Frawley seeks to use the forum of developmental disorders to demonstrate the utility of his control/logic distinction. A much better forum would have been to explore patterns of breakdown in ‘‘pre-programmed’’ cognitive systems, when the developmental process is complete. This would correspond to cases of adult brain damage—indeed Frawley does at points refer to such breakdowns in the cases of blindsight, anomia, and aphasia. Developmental disorders on the other hand are more properly considered within the framework of machine learning. Every inductive learning system must incorporate biases that constrain the hypotheses that it considers to account for the data in its training set. Disruptions to these biases can lead to a system that, at the end of training, shows performance impairments. But note that such impairments are not the result of damaging specific functional components in a pre-programmed system (whether logic or control); rather they are the result of an atypical trajectory of development. The learning process itself is one of the key causes of the pattern of impairments (Bishop 1997; Karmiloff-Smith 1998). In line with this view, researchers have begun to investigate impairments in developmental disorders by building models based on computational learning systems, and in particular, connectionist networks (see Oliver, Johnson, Karmiloff-Smith, and Pennington 2000; Thomas and Karmiloff-Smith in press, for discussion). Where previous

Abstract: In his inspiring article, Frawley argues that a distinction should be made between representation and control in cognition. We would like to contribute to the further development of these ideas by penetrating the concept of cognitive computation from a cognitive–neuroscience perspective. Taking this perspective, two varieties of cognitive control can be discerned in what Frawley refers to as ‘unit–level control’ in cognition: One involving the sequencing and coordination of linguistic output, and one constituting interface management across levels of processing. On a first blush, both of these may seem to constitute meta–level control mechanisms in cognition, and both may seem to be conceptually and computationally distinct from object–level processing of linguistic representations, such as phonemes and lexical units. Contrary to this intuitive distinction, interfacing across processing levels in the brain is computationally inseparable from the processing of information “within” processing levels. In contrast, the sequencing and coordination of information, for example, during the production of a linguistic utterance, poses a qualitatively distinct computational problem in the cognitive system. Hence, while the first type of control outlined by Frawley would in a sense correspond to the concept of control in computers, the second type of “control”, referred to heavily in Frawley’s treatment of linguistic impairments, seems indistinguishable from the processing of cognitive “representation”.

Abstract: Frawley is correct to stress the importance of control in cognitive processing, and the essence of his proposal—that disorders of cognition can result from either within-module or between-module breakdown—is an interesting and potentially important contribution to cognitive science. However, Frawley’s commitment to an overly-literal interpretation of the computational metaphor, combined with his confusion over the possible relationship between any putative language of thought and modularity in peripheral versus central processes, distracts and detracts from his work. In particular, mental processes can employ a language of thought without that language being in any way similar to standard functional or procedural programming languages. In addition, communication between (peripheral) modules does not need to be bound by a single language. Furthermore, the absence of a plausible computational system within which to demonstrate the logic/control distinction and its consequences for the language disorders under discussion weakens the within-module/between-module argument. The computational metaphor—that the brain is like a computer—may be accepted at any one of many different levels. At one extreme, one may accept merely that the functions computed by the neural hardware are subject to the constraints of computability theory. Thus, as Frawley notes, this view is consistent even with anti-representationalist dynamic systems theory (Port and van Gelder 1995). At the other extreme, one might conceive of the neural hardware as a glorified von Neumann machine that executes a program of instructions, and that may crash if any of those instructions embodies a false assumption (e.g., by referring to non-existent data or by attempting arithmetic operations with invalid operands). Frawley appears to opt for this second interpretation, but intermediate interpretations are possible, and arguably more desirable. Several difficulties with Frawley’s interpretation of the computational metaphor are apparent. First, it suggests that the neural hardware rigidly adheres to a predetermined instruction sequence. (Although that instruction sequence may contain conditional ‘‘if-thenelse’’ statements, it remains a rigid instruction sequence.) Where does this sequence come from? Second, it begs the question of how an operating system complex enough to perform the necessary instruction following and allocation of cognitive and effective resources might have evolved within the neural hardware. Third, it raises the possibility of both program and operating system crashes, and the question of how the system might be rebooted. Finally, it limits our imagination with respect to non-standard operating systems and control mechanisms. In particular, it prevents us from considering operating systems and control mechanisms that are not subject to the previous three difficulties. A limited imagination is apparent in the view, implicit in Section 2.1, that all programming languages are necessarily either functional or procedural. Plausible control mechanisms that fall into neither of these categories are conceivable, and such control mechanisms have been proposed within higher cognitive domains. Thus, production systems (Newell and Simon 1972) have proved to be highly adequate in the modelling of problem solving behaviour. Their potential in other cognitive domains has been illustrated through the development of general cognitive architectures such as Soar (Laird, Newell, and Rosenbloom 1987; Newell 1990) and ACT-R (Anderson 1993; Anderson and Lebiere 1998).

Abstract: Purpose: The purpose was to identify the effectiveness of beach-chair position in the arthroscopic Bankart repair over conventional lateral decubitus position with distal traction. Materials & Methods: 36 arthroscopic Bankart repair through July 2000 to July 2001 was done under beach chair position. All cases were shoulder instability. Male patients were 6 and female were 4 with average age of 25 years. Arthroscopic suture anchor was used in 24 cases and average number was 3. Results: Interscalene block was tried in 29 patients and 1 case was changed to general anesthesia. Arthroscopic examination to identify Bankart lesion and associated pathology was done without difficulty Bankart lesions were easily reduced to anatomic position and placed suture anchor and hooking approprately. After the arthroscopic examination,3 cases were converted to open procedure without any positional change. Conclusion: Under interscalene block, the preparation was more simple and the patient could watch arthroscopic procedure with confidence. There was no hindrance in arthroscopic examination and arthroscopic repair could be dont: in more anatomic position. It can be easily changed to open repair if it needed

Abstract: The 48 years old female who complained of painful swelling with discharge on the medial end of the left clavicle which has been lasting 3 months. We experienced arare case of tuberculosis that involved only the clavicle without other involvement. Diagnostic disturbance delayed appropriate medical therapy, leading to development of a discharging sinus with secondary infection, which further confused pathologic feature. The ability of this disease to mimic many skeletal pathologies, this has to be included in the differential diagnosis, especially at unusual sites.