The emergence of artificial intelligence and the Internet of Things has led to a growing demand for wearable and maintenance-free power sources. The continual push toward lower operating voltages and power consumption in modern integrated circuits has made the development of devices powered by body heat finally feasible. In this context, thermoelectric (TE) materials have emerged as promising candidates for the effective conversion of body heat into electricity to power wearable devices without being limited by environmental conditions. Driven by rapid advances in processing technology and the performance of TE materials over the past two decades, wearable thermoelectric generators (WTEGs) have gradually become more flexible and stretchable so that they can be used on complex and dynamic surfaces. In this review, the functional materials, processing techniques, and strategies for the device design of different types of WTEGs are comprehensively covered. Wearable self-powered systems based on WTEGs are summarized, including multi-function TE modules, hybrid energy harvesting, and all-in-one energy devices. Challenges in organic TE materials, interfacial engineering, and assessments of device performance are discussed, and suggestions for future developments in the area are provided. This review will promote the rapid implementation of wearable TE materials and devices in self-powered electronic systems.

Wearable Thermoelectric Materials and Devices for Self-Powered Electronic Systems.

Advances in the design and assembly of flexible thermoelectric device

Ultra-high electrical conductivity in filler-free polymeric hydrogels toward thermoelectrics and electromagnetic interference shielding.

Organic-based flexible thermoelectric generators: From materials to devices

Degenerately Doped Semi-Crystalline Polymers for High Performance Thermoelectrics

Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) have shown low n-type Seebeck coefficients (−10 μV K−1), which are not good enough to prepare high performance low-cost MWCNT based mechanically flexible thermoelectric devices. Here, we present a double doping approach utilizing a small n-type doping molecule, 1,3-dimethyl-2-phenyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-benzimidazole (N-DMBI), in addition to encapsulated metal (iron) nanoparticles for achieving a high n-type thermoelectric performance with MWCNTs. With double doping, we have shown high n-type Seebeck coefficients up to −56 μV K−1 along with a power factor up to 112 μW m−1 K−2 at room temperature, which, to the best of our knowledge, is at least an order of magnitude higher than the power factors of previously reported n-type MWCNT based organic materials. More importantly, the negative Seebeck coefficient was maintained even after 60 days' exposure to air. An outstanding output power of 1.9 W m−2 at a temperature difference of 60 K was generated with a flexible thermoelectric device made of only MWCNT mats. The new findings could lead to the development of robust and flexible thermoelectric devices made of only low-cost MWCNTs.

Double doping approach for unusually stable and large n-type thermoelectric voltage from p-type multi-walled carbon nanotube mats

Finding a stable n-type flexible thermoelectric (TE) material with a high power factor and mass production is a challenge for wearable TE devices. In this paper, we report that metallic multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) and their hybrids are converted from p-type to n-type with an n-type dopant, 1,3-dimethyl-2-phenyl-2,3-dihydro-1h-benzoimidazole (NDMBI), with a high n-type Seebeck coefficient. The maximum power factor of the n-type hybrid is 195 μW m−1 K2 at 373 K which is 2–3 orders higher than those of most n-type MWCNT based organic materials in the literature. This high TE performance may be attributed to the high n-type Seebeck coefficient of MWCNTs derived from the effective n-type doping. The theoretical calculation results indicate that the effective n-type doping could increase the Seebeck coefficients of metallic MWCNTs without sacrificing their electrical conductivities when their Fermi level shifts to approach the one-dimensional van Hove singularity. The results suggest that the trade-off relationship between the electrical conductivity and the Seebeck coefficient of one-dimensional metallic materials could be solved, which are promising candidates for preparing large scalable, low-cost, and high-performance flexible TE devices for wearable electronics. This may promote the evolution of developing high performance organic and inorganic TE materials with metallic one-dimensional nanomaterials.

Mass-produced metallic multiwalled carbon nanotube hybrids exhibiting high N-type thermoelectric performances

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Double doping approach for unusually stable and large n-type thermoelectric voltage from p-type multi-walled carbon nanotube mats

Mass-produced metallic multiwalled carbon nanotube hybrids exhibiting high N-type thermoelectric performances