In the previous paper Ralph Brodd and Martin Winter described the different kinds of batteries and fuel cells. In this paper I will describe lithium batteries in more detail, building an overall foundation for the papers that follow which describe specific components in some depth and usually with an emphasis on the materials behavior. The lithium battery industry is undergoing rapid expansion, now representing the largest segment of the portable battery industry and dominating the computer, cell phone, and camera power source industry. However, the present secondary batteries use expensive components, which are not in sufficient supply to allow the industry to grow at the same rate in the next decade. Moreover, the safety of the system is questionable for the large-scale batteries needed for hybrid electric vehicles (HEV). Another battery need is for a high-power system that can be used for power tools, where only the environmentally hazardous Ni/ Cd battery presently meets the requirements. A battery is a transducer that converts chemical energy into electrical energy and vice versa. It contains an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte. The anode, in the case of a lithium battery, is the source of lithium ions. The cathode is the sink for the lithium ions and is chosen to optimize a number of parameters, discussed below. The electrolyte provides for the separation of ionic transport and electronic transport, and in a perfect battery the lithium ion transport number will be unity in the electrolyte. The cell potential is determined by the difference between the chemical potential of the lithium in the anode and cathode, ∆G ) -EF. As noted above, the lithium ions flow through the electrolyte whereas the electrons generated from the reaction, Li ) Li+ + e-, go through the external circuit to do work. Thus, the electrode system must allow for the flow of both lithium ions and electrons. That is, it must be both a good ionic conductor and an electronic conductor. As discussed below, many electrochemically active materials are not good electronic conductors, so it is necessary to add an electronically conductive material such as carbon * To whom correspondence should be addressed. Phone and fax: (607) 777-4623. E-mail: stanwhit@binghamton.edu. 4271 Chem. Rev. 2004, 104, 4271−4301

http://www.chemie.uni-regensburg.de/Anorganische_Chemie/Vortrag/StudentenWS06-07/Vortrag_Amereller.pdf

Lithium Batteries and Cathode Materials

We present the science and technology roadmap for graphene, related two-dimensional crystals, and hybrid systems, targeting an evolution in technology, that might lead to impacts and benefits reaching into most areas of society. This roadmap was developed within the framework of the European Graphene Flagship and outlines the main targets and research areas as best understood at the start of this ambitious project. We provide an overview of the key aspects of graphene and related materials (GRMs), ranging from fundamental research challenges to a variety of applications in a large number of sectors, highlighting the steps necessary to take GRMs from a state of raw potential to a point where they might revolutionize multiple industries. We also define an extensive list of acronyms in an effort to standardize the nomenclature in this emerging field.

/pdf/science-and-technology-roadmap-for-graphene-related-two-4q9m7czlkc.pdf

Science and technology roadmap for graphene, related two-dimensional crystals, and hybrid systems

Metal Oxides and Oxysalts as Anode Materials for Li Ion Batteries

Energy-storage technologies, including electrical double-layer capacitors and rechargeable batteries, have attracted significant attention for applications in portable electronic devices, electric vehicles, bulk electricity storage at power stations, and “load leveling” of renewable sources, such as solar energy and wind power. Transforming lithium batteries and electric double-layer capacitors requires a step change in the science underpinning these devices, including the discovery of new materials, new electrochemistry, and an increased understanding of the processes on which the devices depend. The Review will consider some of the current scientific issues underpinning lithium batteries and electric double-layer capacitors.

Challenges Facing Lithium Batteries and Electrical Double‐Layer Capacitors

This Review covers a sequence of key discoveries and technical achievements that eventually led to the birth of the lithium-ion battery. In doing so, it not only sheds light on the history with the advantage of contemporary hindsight but also provides insight and inspiration to aid in the ongoing quest for better batteries of the future. A detailed retrospective on ingenious designs, accidental discoveries, intentional breakthroughs, and deceiving misconceptions is given: from the discovery of the element lithium to its electrochemical synthesis; from intercalation host material development to the concept of dual-intercalation electrodes; and from the misunderstanding of intercalation behavior into graphite to the comprehension of interphases. The onerous demands of bringing all critical components (anode, cathode, electrolyte, solid-electrolyte interphases), each of which possess unique chemistries, into a sophisticated electrochemical device reveal that the challenge of interfacing these originally inco...

Before Li Ion Batteries

Efforts were made to synthesize LiFePO 4 /C composites showing good rale capability and high energy density while attempting to minimize the amount of carbon in the composite. First, three carbon-coated samples, one coated with carbon after the synthesis of pure LiFePO 4 , one synthesized with sugar added before the heating steps, and one synthesized with sugar added before heating and subsequently coated with carbon, were studied. The resulting carbon contents for these samples arc 2.7, 3.5, and 6.2 wt %, respectively. Electrochemical tests showed that the latter two samples had comparable rate capabilities to the LiFePO 4 /C composite (15 wt % carbon) recently reported by Huang et al. We believe the synthesis of LiFePO 4 with sugar added before heating is the best method because it gives particles having uniform small size that are covered by carbon. Further studies of samples made by this method show that a very small percentage of carbon, even less than 1 wt %, causes a significant increase in rate capability, hut unfortunately, a dramatic decrease in tap density. To make LiFePO 4 /C composites having good rate capability, high energy density, and high tap density, the carbon content and method for coating carbon onto the LiFePO 4 particles must he given careful attention. However, based on the studies reported here, we are not certain that all desired parameters can he simultaneously achieved, and this may limit the usefulness of LiFePO 4 in some practical applications.

Reducing Carbon in LiFePO4 / C Composite Electrodes to Maximize Specific Energy, Volumetric Energy, and Tap Density

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Reducing Carbon in LiFePO4 / C Composite Electrodes to Maximize Specific Energy, Volumetric Energy, and Tap Density