Microplastics have become ubiquitous throughout the environment. Humans constantly ingest and inhale microplastics, increasing concerns about the health risks of microplastic exposure. However, limited data impedes a full understanding of the internal exposure to microplastics. Herein, to evaluate microplastic exposure via the respiratory and digestive systems, we used laser direct infrared spectroscopy to identify microplastics >20 μm in size in different human tissues. Consequently, 20–100 μm microplastics were concentrated in all tissues, with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) being the dominant polymer. The highest abundance of microplastics was detected in lung tissue with an average of 14.19 ± 14.57 particles/g, followed by that in the small intestine, large intestine, and tonsil (9.45 ± 13.13, 7.91 ± 7.00, and 6.03 ± 7.37 particles/g, respectively). The abundance of microplastics was also significantly greater in females than in males (p < 0.05). Despite significant diversity, our estimation showed that the lungs accumulated the highest amounts of microplastic. Moreover, PVC particles may cause potential health risks because of their high polymer hazard index and maximal risk level. This study provides evidence regarding the occurrence of microplastics in humans and empirical data to support assessments of the health risks posed by microplastics. 

Tissue accumulation of microplastics and potential health risks in human.

Nanoplastics are emerging environmental contaminants, but their presence in environmental and potable water remains largely understudied due to the absence of quantitative analytical methods. In this study, we developed and validated a pretreatment method that combines hydrogen peroxide digestion and Amicon® Stirred Cell ultrafiltration (at 100 kDa, approximately 10 nm) with subsequent detection by pyrolysis gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (Pyr-GC/MS). This method allows for the simultaneous identification and quantification of nine selected nanoplastic types, including poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), polyethylene (PE), polycarbonate (PC), polypropylene (PP), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), polystyrene (PS), polyvinylchloride (PVC), nylon 6, and nylon 66, in environmental and potable water samples based on polymer-specific mass concentration. Limits of quantification ranged from 0.01 to 0.44 µg/L, demonstrating the method’s ability to quantitatively detect nanoplastics in environmental and potable water samples. Most of the selected nanoplastics were detected at concentrations of between 0.04 and 1.17 µg/L, except for PC, which was consistently below the limit of detection (<0.44 µg/L). The prevalent polymer components in the samples were PE (0.10 – 1.17 µg/L), PET (0.06 – 0.91 µg/L), PP (0.04 – 0.79 µg/L), and PS (0.06 – 0.53 µg/L) nanoplastics. The presented analytical method offers an accurate means to identify, quantify, and monitor nanoplastics in complex environmental and potable water samples. It fills gaps in our understanding of nanoplastic pollution levels, providing a valuable methodology and crucial reference data for future studies. The environmental fate and potential human exposure risks associated with nanoplastics have garnered significant attention, but the occurrence and concentrations of nanoplastics in environmental and potable water samples remain largely understudied due to analytical complexities. In this study, we developed an analytical workflow capable of pre-concentrating, identifying, and quantifying levels of nanoplastics present in complex environmental and potable waters. Among the nine targeted nanoplastics (PE, PP, PET, PS, PMMA, PC, Nylon 6, PVC, and Nylon 66), eight were successfully identified and quantified, with PE, PET, PP, and PS being the most prevalent. This research provided valuable insights into the actual pollution levels of these targeted nanoplastics in environmental and potable water samples, offering crucial reference data for future studies, and demonstrating the effectiveness of the proposed analytical method. 

Quantitative Analysis of Nanoplastics in Environmental and Potable Waters by Pyrolysis-Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry

The pollution of microplastics (MPs) has received widespread attention with the increasing usage of plastics in recent years. MPs could enter the human body and exist in the circulatory system. Endometrium, with rich blood vessels, acts as an essential role in human health and female fertility. However, there is no study reporting the MPs exposure in human endometrium. We collected the endometrium samples to detect the presence of MPs qualitatively and quantitatively via laser direct infrared. We found that there was a total of 13 types of MPs existing in the collected samples, among which 6 special types of MPs were with both high abundance and high detection rate. The abundance of these MPs ranged from 0 to 117 particles/100 mg, with a median abundance of 21 particles/100 mg. Most detected MPs, accounting for 88.35 %, were in small size (20–100 μm). Among small-size MPs, ethylene-acrylic acid copolymer ranked first while polyethylene accounted for the largest proportion among large-size MPs (100–500 μm). Correlation analysis indicated there was no significant relationship between age and MP abundance or BMI and MP abundance. We also designed a questionnaire to investigate lifestyle and daily habits, aiming at revealing the potential relationship between MP exposure and living habits. We discovered that some drinking habits and chewing gum were significantly correlated with a higher level of MP exposure. For the first time, we identified the presence of MPs in human endometrium and clarified the potential connections between MP exposure and lifestyle. Further studies are still necessary to explore more underlying information. 

Detection and quantification of various microplastics in human endometrium based on laser direct infrared spectroscopy.

The ubiquitous occurrence of microplastics (MPs) in the environment and the use of plastics in packaging materials result in the presence of MPs in the food chain and exposure of consumers. Yet, no fully validated analytical method is available for microplastic (MP) quantification, thereby preventing the reliable estimation of the level of exposure and, ultimately, the assessment of the food safety risks associated with MP contamination. In this study, a novel approach is presented that exploits interactive artificial intelligence tools to enable automation of MP analysis. An integrated method for the analysis of MPs in bottled water based on Nile Red staining and fluorescent microscopy was developed and validated, featuring a partial interrogation of the filter and a fully automated image processing workflow based on a Random Forest classifier, thereby boosting the analysis speed. The image analysis provided particle count, size and size distribution of the MPs. From these data, a rough estimation of the mass of the individual MPs, and consequently of the MP mass concentration in the sample, could be obtained as well. Critical materials, method performance characteristics, and final applicability were studied in detail. The method showed to be highly sensitive in sizing MPs down to 10 μm, with a particle count limit of detection and quantification of 28 and 85 items/500 mL, respectively. Linearity of mass concentration determined between 10 ppb and 1.5 ppm showed a regression coefficient (R2) of 0.99. Method precision was demonstrated by a repeatability of 9-16% RSD (n = 7) and within-laboratory reproducibility of 15-27% RSD (n = 21). Accuracy based on recovery was 92 ± 15% and 98 ± 23% at a level of 0.1 and 1.0 ppm, respectively. The quantitative performance characteristics thus obtained complied with regulatory requirements. Finally, the method was successfully applied to the analysis of twenty commercial samples of bottled water, with and without gas and flavor additives, yielding results ranging from values below the limit of detection to 7237 (95% CI [6456, 8088]) items/500 mL.

Quantitative image analysis of microplastics in bottled water using artificial intelligence

Microplastic pollution is now ubiquitous in the environment, making human exposure to microplastics unavoidable. This results in the detection of microplastics in human bodies, including blood. However, the pathways through which microplastics enter the bloodstream still need to be clarified, despite the studies of several direct and indirect routes. Herein, the potential occurrence of microplastics in infusion therapy sets, including glass infusion bottles, plastic infusion bottles, plastic infusion bags, and plastic infusion tubes, was investigated. The results showed that a total of eight microplastics, ranging from 4 to 148 μm in size, were identified from three PP-bottled infusion, three PE-bagged infusion, and one glass-bottled infusion, consisting of PE, PA, PS, and PC, while no particles were detected in infusion tubes. The samples containing microplastics accounted for 11.66% of the total samples with 1–2 particles/unit. Although microplastics were detected in infusion solutions, microplastic exposure to the bloodstream via infusion therapy is minimal, owing to their low abundance. Nevertheless, these findings suggested that infusion therapy might be a direct pathway of microplastics entering the bloodstream, partially or fully explaining the presence of microplastics in human blood and tissues. 

Microplastics Entry into the Blood by Infusion Therapy: Few but a Direct Pathway

Occurrence of microplastics in commercially sold bottled water.

Probing drug-mediated fluctuations of HClO levels in the endoplasmic reticulum by a ratiometric fluorescent probe with a large emission shift

Three-in-one erlotinib-modified NIR photosensitizer for fluorescence imaging and synergistic chemo-photodynamic therapy

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Occurrence of microplastics in commercially sold bottled water.

Probing drug-mediated fluctuations of HClO levels in the endoplasmic reticulum by a ratiometric fluorescent probe with a large emission shift

Three-in-one erlotinib-modified NIR photosensitizer for fluorescence imaging and synergistic chemo-photodynamic therapy