Eye movements are now widely used to investigate cognitive processes during reading, scene perception, and visual search. In this article, research on the following topics is reviewed with respect to reading: (a) the perceptual span (or span of effective vision), (b) preview benefit, (c) eye movement control, and (d) models of eye movements. Related issues with respect to eye movements during scene perception and visual search are also reviewed. It is argued that research on eye movements during reading has been somewhat advanced over research on eye movements in scene perception and visual search and that some of the paradigms developed to study reading should be more widely adopted in the study of scene perception and visual search. Research dealing with "real-world" tasks and research utilizing the visual-world paradigm are also briefly discussed.

https://www.cogsci.ucsd.edu/~bkbergen/cogs200/Rayner-Bartlett.pdf

Eye movements and attention in reading, scene perception, and visual search.

Brain-electric correlates of reading have traditionally been studied with word-by-word presentation, a condition that eliminates important aspects of the normal reading process and precludes direct comparisons between neural activity and oculomotor behavior. In the present study, we investigated effects of word predictability on eye movements (EM) and fixation-related brain potentials (FRPs) during natural sentence reading. Electroencephalogram (EEG) and EM (via video-based eye tracking) were recorded simultaneously while subjects read heterogeneous German sentences, moving their eyes freely over the text. FRPs were time-locked to first-pass reading fixations and analyzed according to the cloze probability of the currently fixated word. We replicated robust effects of word predictability on EMs and the N400 component in FRPs. The data were then used to model the relation among fixation duration, gaze duration, and N400 amplitude, and to trace the time course of EEG effects relative to effects in EM behavior. In an extended Methodological Discussion section, we review 4 technical and data-analytical problems that need to be addressed when FRPs are recorded in free-viewing situations (such as reading, visual search, or scene perception) and propose solutions. Results suggest that EEG recordings during normal vision are feasible and useful to consolidate findings from EEG and eye-tracking studies.

Coregistration of eye movements and EEG in natural reading: analyses and review.

In this article, we are interested in the computational modeling of visual attention. We report methods commonly used to assess the performance of these kinds of models. We survey the strengths and weaknesses of common assessment methods based on diachronic eye-tracking data. We then illustrate the use of some methods to benchmark computational models of visual attention.

/pdf/methods-for-comparing-scanpaths-and-saliency-maps-strengths-3ejb0s92x3.pdf

Methods for comparing scanpaths and saliency maps: strengths and weaknesses.

Video-based gaze-tracking systems are typically restricted in terms of their effective tracking space. This constraint limits the use of eyetrackers in studying mobile human behavior. Here, we compare two possible approaches for estimating the gaze of participants who are free to walk in a large space whilst looking at different regions of a large display. Geometrically, we linearly combined eye-in-head rotations and head-in-world coordinates to derive a gaze vector and its intersection with a planar display, by relying on the use of a head-mounted eyetracker and body-motion tracker. Alternatively, we employed Gaussian process regression to estimate the gaze intersection directly from the input data itself. Our evaluation of both methods indicates that a regression approach can deliver comparable results to a geometric approach. The regression approach is favored, given that it has the potential for further optimization, provides confidence bounds for its gaze estimates and offers greater flexibility in its implementation. Open-source software for the methods reported here is also provided for user implementation.

A comparison of geometric- and regression-based mobile gaze-tracking

There is a growing body of evidence that important aspects of human cognition have been marginalised, or overlooked, by traditional cognitive science. In particular, the use of laboratory-based experiments in which stimuli are artificial, and response options are fixed, inevitably results in findings that are less ecologically valid in relation to real-world behaviour. In the present review we highlight the opportunities provided by a range of new mobile technologies that allow traditionally lab-bound measurements to now be collected during natural interactions with the world. We begin by outlining the theoretical support that mobile approaches receive from the development of embodied accounts of cognition, and we review the widening evidence that illustrates the importance of examining cognitive processes in their context. As we acknowledge, in practice, the development of mobile approaches brings with it fresh challenges, and will undoubtedly require innovation in paradigm design and analysis. If successful, however, the mobile cognition approach will offer novel insights in a range of areas, including understanding the cognitive processes underlying navigation through space and the role of attention during natural behaviour. We argue that the development of real-world mobile cognition offers both increased ecological validity, and the opportunity to examine the interactions between perception, cognition and action – rather than examining each in isolation.

/pdf/understanding-minds-in-real-world-environments-toward-a-29hrye2052.pdf

Understanding Minds in Real-World Environments: Toward a Mobile Cognition Approach.

. This paper presents a new methodology for studying cognition, which combines eye movements (EM) and event-related potentials (ERP) to track the cognitive processes that occur during a single eye fixation. This technique, called eye-fixation-related potentials (EFRP), has the advantage of coupling accurate time measures from ERPs and the location of the eye on the stimulus, so it can be used to disentangle perceptual/attentional/cognitive factors affecting reading. We tested this new technique to describe the controversial parafoveal-on-foveal effects on reading, which concern the question of whether two consecutive words are processed in parallel or sequentially. The experiment directly addressed this question by looking at whether semantic relatedness on a target word in a reading-like situation might affect the processing of a prime word. Three pair-word conditions were tested: A semantically associated target word (horse-mare), a semantically nonassociated target word (horse-table) and a nonw...

/pdf/eye-fixation-related-potentials-insight-into-parafoveal-2kyfbh5d8f.pdf

Eye-Fixation-Related Potentials: Insight into Parafoveal Processing

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Eye-Fixation-Related Potentials: Insight into Parafoveal Processing