Additive manufacturing (AM) is poised to bring about a revolution in the way products are designed, manufactured, and distributed to end users. This technology has gained significant academic as well as industry interest due to its ability to create complex geometries with customizable material properties. AM has also inspired the development of the maker movement by democratizing design and manufacturing. Due to the rapid proliferation of a wide variety of technologies associated with AM, there is a lack of a comprehensive set of design principles, manufacturing guidelines, and standardization of best practices. These challenges are compounded by the fact that advancements in multiple technologies (for example materials processing, topology optimization) generate a "positive feedback loop" effect in advancing AM. In order to advance research interest and investment in AM technologies, some fundamental questions and trends about the dependencies existing in these avenues need highlighting. The goal of our review paper is to organize this body of knowledge surrounding AM, and present current barriers, findings, and future trends significantly to the researchers. We also discuss fundamental attributes of AM processes, evolution of the AM industry, and the affordances enabled by the emergence of AM in a variety of areas such as geometry processing, material design, and education. We conclude our paper by pointing out future directions such as the "print-it-all" paradigm, that have the potential to re-imagine current research and spawn completely new avenues for exploration. The fundamental attributes and challenges/barriers of Additive Manufacturing (AM).The evolution of research on AM with a focus on engineering capabilities.The affordances enabled by AM such as geometry, material and tools design.The developments in industry, intellectual property, and education-related aspects.The important future trends of AM technologies.

The status, challenges, and future of additive manufacturing in engineering

Direct laser writing methods based on two-photon polymerization (2PP) are powerful tools for the on-demand printing of precise and complex 3D architectures at the micro and nanometer scale. While much progress was made to increase the resolution and the feature size throughout the years, by carefully designing a material, one can confer specific functional properties to the printed structures thus making them appealing for peculiar and novel applications. This Review summarizes the state-of-the-art of functional resins and photoresists used in 2PP, discussing both the range of material functions available and the methods used to prepare them, highlighting advantages and disadvantages of different classes of materials in achieving certain properties.

Functional Materials for Two-Photon Polymerization in Microfabrication

Provided herein are high coefficient of friction contact surfaces for transfer of substrates including semiconductor wafers. In certain implementations, the contact surfaces include microstructures that exploit intermolecular surface forces for increased adhesion and friction in the x-y direction during substrate transfer, while allowing easy release in the z-direction without tilting the substrate. Also provided are robot end effectors including the contact surfaces and related high-throughput transfer systems and methods.

Microstructures for improved wafer handling

Two-Photon Lithography, thanks to its very high sub-diffraction resolution, has become the lithographic technique par excellence in applications requiring small feature sizes and complex 3D pattering. Despite this, the fabrication times required for extended structures remain much longer than those of other competing techniques (UV mask lithography, nanoimprinting, etc.). Its low throughput prevents its wide adoption in industrial applications. To increase it, over the years different solutions have been proposed, although their usage is difficult to generalize and may be limited depending on the specific application. A promising strategy to further increase the throughput of Two-Photon Lithography, opening a concrete window for its adoption in industry, lies in its combination with holography approaches: in this way it is possible to generate dozens of foci from a single laser beam, thus parallelizing the fabrication of periodic structures, or to engineer the intensity distribution on the writing plane in a complex way, obtaining 3D microstructures with a single exposure. Here, the fundamental concepts behind high-speed Two-Photon Lithography and its combination with holography are discussed, and the literary production of recent years that exploits such techniques is reviewed, and contextualized according to the topic covered. 

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1002/adfm.202211773

Recent Advances on High‐Speed and Holographic Two‐Photon Direct Laser Writing

Stereolithographic fabrication of graphene-based 3D constructs was demonstrated. The photocrosslinkable resin/graphene oxide mixtures were fabricated to samples that closely followed the structure of the designed 3D model. After 3D printings, the graphene oxide/polymer composites were pyrolyzed to reduce graphene oxide to electrically conductive graphene and to decompose the polymer, resulting in 3D structures consisting entirely of graphene. The method presented in this paper proved to be successful for producing designed 3D structures but further optimization is needed for practical applications due to high shrinking and brittleness of the pyrolyzed 3D constructs. By pyrolyzing the polymer component only partly, electrical conductivities in the range of semiconductors were achieved.

Fabrication of graphene-based 3D structures by stereolithography

We developed new photopolymers for use in the formation of three-dimensional (3-D) carbon microstructures via two-photon microfabrication and microtransfer molding. The photopolymers contain the epoxy resorcinol diglycidyl ether. They have a high carbon content and a high bond energy, ensuring structural fidelity of the microstructures after pyrolysis. A cationic photoinitiator is incorporated into one of the new photopolymers and an additional radical photoinitiator into another. These two photopolymers are found to be ideal for two-photon microfabrication and microtransfer molding, respectively, with complex 3-D carbon microstructures such as a bunny and pyramidal models being formed. Potential applications of the new photopolymers include 3-D carbon electrodes for fuel cells or batteries and interfaces for biosensors.

Formation of three-dimensional carbon microstructures via two-photon microfabrication and microtransfer molding

A magnetic micro machine was fabricated by using photopolymerized resin structure as the base, and its motion in viscous liquid was evaluated. The production method of two kinds using a positive-type mold and a negative-type mold was proposed. With ultrasonic vibration after the surface treatment using the ultra-fine particles of silica, electroless copper plating was realized to negative-type resin mold even inside the concave structure of 20 μm in width and 100 μm in depth. The magnetic micro capsule was produced by carrying out ferrite plating to positive-type resin mold, and the magnetic field guidance experiments were conducted in silicone oil. The sample of full length 800 μm swam by the guidance, always turning the head in the advance direction, and it rotated on the same spot.

Production of A Magnetic Micro Capsule based on Photopolymerized Resin Mold and Its Motion in Viscous Liquid

A three-dimensional (3-D) molding process using a master polymer mold produced by microstereolithography has been developed for the production of piezoelectric ceramic elements. In this method, ceramic slurry is injected into a 3-D polymer mold via a centrifugal casting process. The polymer master mold is thermally decomposed so that complex 3-D piezoelectric ceramic elements can be produced. As an example of 3-D piezoelectric ceramic elements, we produced a spiral piezoelectric element that can convert multidirectional loads into a voltage. It was confirmed that a prototype of the spiral piezoelectric element could generate a voltage by applying a load in both parallel and lateral directions in relation to the helical axis. The power output of 123 pW was obtained by applying the maximum load of 2.8N at 2 Hz along the helical axis. In addition, to improve the performance of power generation, we utilized a two-step sintering process to obtain dense piezoelectric elements. As a result, we obtained a sintering body with relative density of 92.8%. Piezoelectric constant d31 of the sintered body attained to -40.0 pC/N. Furthermore we analyzed the open-circuit voltage of the spiral piezoelectric element using COMSOL multiphysics. As a result, it was found that use of patterned electrodes according to the surface potential distribution of the spiral piezoelectric element had a potential to provide high output voltage that was 20 times larger than that of uniform electrodes.

Three-dimensional ceramic molding process based on microstereolithography for the production of piezoelectric energy harvesters

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Formation of three-dimensional carbon microstructures via two-photon microfabrication and microtransfer molding

Production of A Magnetic Micro Capsule based on Photopolymerized Resin Mold and Its Motion in Viscous Liquid

Three-dimensional ceramic molding process based on microstereolithography for the production of piezoelectric energy harvesters