As the price of renewable electricity continues to plummet, hydrogen (H2) production via water electrolysis is gaining momentum globally as a route to decarbonize our energy systems. The requirement of high purity water for electrolysis and the widespread availability of seawater have led to significant research efforts in developing direct seawater electrolysis technology for H2 production. In this perspective, we critically assess the broad-brush arguments on the research and development (R&D) needs for direct seawater electrolysis from energy, cost and environmental aspects. We focus in particular on a process consisting of seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) coupled to proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysis. Our analysis reveals there are limited economic and environmental incentives of pursuing R&D on today's nascent direct seawater electrolysis technology. As commercial water electrolysis requires a significant amount of energy compared to SWRO, the capital and operating costs of SWRO are found to be negligible. This leads to an insignificant increase in levelized cost of H2 (<0.1 $ per kg H2) and CO2 emissions (<0.1%) from a SWRO-PEM coupled process. Our analysis poses the questions: what is the future promise of direct seawater electrolysis? With an urgent need to decarbonize our energy systems, should we consider realigning our research investments? We conclude with a forward-looking perspective on future R&D priorities in desalination and electrolysis technologies.

Seawater electrolysis for hydrogen production: a solution looking for a problem?

Brine is a saline water present in the natural environment and produced by desalination and other process industries such as the oil & gas, textile, leather, food, dairy, agriculture, and pharmaceutical industries. Although brine was designated to be discharged in the early stages of the brine management strategy, its environmental impacts have recently prompted the adoption of a new management approach. This change is the shift from disposal to utilization and resource recovery. Apart from being a source of freshwater, brine can also be a source of salts, minerals, metals, chemicals, bioactive compounds, and even energy (known as ‘osmotic power’, ‘salinity gradient power’ or ‘blue energy’). Minimal Liquid Discharge (MLD) and Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) systems can be employed for the treatment and recovery of valuable resources. This review article is the first to investigate and evaluate the potential of recovering all of the resources present in brine through its treatment and utilization in MLD/ZLD systems. Overall, the challenges, research gaps, and future prospects are identified through this analysis, with the ultimate goals of decarbonized and sustainable brine management. 

Brine management (saline water & wastewater effluents): Sustainable utilization and resource recovery strategy through Minimal and Zero Liquid Discharge (MLD & ZLD) desalination systems

Desalination and environment: A critical analysis of impacts, mitigation strategies, and greener desalination technologies

/pdf/drivers-challenges-and-emerging-technologies-for-35ob0m49.pdf

Drivers, challenges, and emerging technologies for desalination of high-salinity brines: A critical review

Energy consumption and environmental impact assessment of desalination plants and brine disposal strategies

Minimal and zero liquid discharge with reverse osmosis using low-salt-rejection membranes.

A mechanistic model for salt and water transport in leaky membranes: Implications for low-salt-rejection reverse osmosis membranes

During a practical battery manufacture process, the LiCoO2 (LCO) electrodes are usually rolled with high pressure to achieve better performance, including reducing electrode polarization, increasing compact density, enhancing mechanical toughness, etc. In this work, a high-voltage LCO (HV-LCO) is achieved via modulating a commercialized LCO with an Al/F enriched and spinel reinforced surface structure. We reveal that the rolling can more or less introduce risk of grain-boundary-cracking (GBC) inside the HV-LCO and accelerate the capacity decay when cycled at 3–4.6 V vs Li/Li+. In particular, the concept of interface structure is proposed to explain the reason for the deteriorated cycle stability. As the GBC is generated, the interface structure of HV-LCO alters from a surface spinel phase to a hybrid of surface spinel plus boundary layer phases, leading to the exposure of some the nonprotective layer phase against the electrolyte. This alternation causes serious bulk structure damage upon cycles, including expanding GBC among the primary crystals, forming intragranular cracks and inactive spinel phases inside the bulk regions, etc., eventually leading to the deteriorated cycle stability. Above all, we realize that it is far from enough to achieve a eligible high-voltage LCO via only applying surface modification. This work provides a new insight for developing more advanced LCO cathodes. 

Revealing the Grain-Boundary-Cracking Induced Capacity Decay of a High-Voltage LiCoO2 at 4.6 V.

A Mechanistic Model for Salt and Water Transport in Low-Salt-Rejection Reverse Osmosis Membranes

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Papers

Minimal and zero liquid discharge with reverse osmosis using low-salt-rejection membranes.

A mechanistic model for salt and water transport in leaky membranes: Implications for low-salt-rejection reverse osmosis membranes

Revealing the Grain-Boundary-Cracking Induced Capacity Decay of a High-Voltage LiCoO2 at 4.6 V.

A Mechanistic Model for Salt and Water Transport in Low-Salt-Rejection Reverse Osmosis Membranes