Recent advances in energy storage systems have speeded up the development of new technologies such as electric vehicles and renewable energy systems. In this respect, supercapacitors have gained interest due to their unique features such as high power density, long lifespan, and wide operating range. To achieve the high-voltage levels required for vehicular or utility applications, a supercapacitor pack should contain hundreds of high-capacity series-parallel cells. The internal states of these cells cannot be obtained by direct measurements and these states are usually affected by operating conditions such as temperature and noise. In addition, due to the uncertainty in the manufacturing processes, the characteristics between different batches or even the same batch of supercapacitor cells will be unavoidably different, which will impose significant challenges in terms of uniformity, functional safety, and durability of the system. Therefore, the supercapacitor pack will require a management system to effectively monitor, control, and protect the cells along all performance boundaries. Based on a comprehensive review of the latest articles and achievements in the field, as well as some useful previous experiences of the authors, this paper provides an overview of the key technologies, functionalities, and requirements for Supercapacitor Management Systems (SMSs). To the best of the author's knowledge, this is the first survey that provides an inclusive collection of key requirements for the SMS, including issues related to the modeling, estimation, control, and protection of the supercapacitors. The supercapacitor is a relatively new technology and no international standard about SMSs and their functional requirements are available up to date. The present survey will perfectly fill these gaps. In the survey, the key SMS requirements are broadly divided into the software and hardware functions, and several key issues including modeling and state estimation functions, control and balancing circuits, etc. Are covered. A comprehensive review of the supercapacitor/SMS vehicular applications is also provided in this paper. 

Supercapacitor management system: A comprehensive review of modeling, estimation, balancing, and protection techniques

4D-resolved physical model for Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy of Li(Ni1-x-yMnxCoy)O2-based cathodes in symmetric cells: Consequences in tortuosity calculations

Supercapacitors are often modelled using electrical equivalent circuits with a limited number of branches. However, the limited number of branches often cannot explain long-term dynamics, and one therefore has to resort to more computationally challenging basic models governing diffusion and drift of ions. Here, it is shown that consistent modelling of a supercapacitor can be done in a straightforward manner by introducing a dynamic equivalent circuit model that naturally allows a large number or a continuous distribution of time constants, both in time and frequency domains. Such a model can be used to explain the most common features of a supercapacitor in a consistent manner. In the time domain, it is shown that the time-dependent charging rate and the self-discharge of a supercapacitor can both be interpreted in this model with either a few or a continuous distribution of relaxation times. In the frequency domain, the impedance spectrum allows one to extract a distribution of relaxation times. The unified model presented here may help visualizing how the distribution of relaxation times or frequencies govern the behaviour of a supercapacitor under varying circumstances.

Modelling supercapacitors using a dynamic equivalent circuit with a distribution of relaxation times

A carbon-based supercapacitor is usually associated with a capacitance such that the user can access its ability to store electrical charge. Three different measurement methods or variations thereof are typically employed to find the capacitance; galvanostatic charging, cyclic voltammetry and impedance spectroscopy. These three methods may give rather different capacitances, which must be interpreted with care. Here, it is discussed how one can extract consistent capacitance values from measurements obtained with the three techniques, to be interpreted within a single dynamic equivalent circuit. Different methods are compared in order to demonstrate where systematic errors occur, and how and under which conditions they can be removed. The extension of the methods presented here to pseudocapacitors utilizing both Faradaic and non-Faradaic charge storage is also briefly discussed.

Comparison of methods for finding the capacitance of a supercapacitor

Modular theory for DC-biased electrochemical impedance response of supercapacitor

Multi-scale impedance model for supercapacitor porous electrodes: Theoretical prediction and experimental validation

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Multi-scale impedance model for supercapacitor porous electrodes: Theoretical prediction and experimental validation