Immobilization is a key technology for successful realization of enzyme-based industrial processes, particularly for production of green and sustainable energy or chemicals from biomass-derived catalytic conversion. Different methods to immobilize enzymes are critically reviewed. In principle, enzymes are immobilized via three major routes (i) binding to a support, (ii) encapsulation or entrapment, or (iii) cross-linking (carrier free). As a result, immobilizing enzymes on certain supports can enhance storage and operational stability. In addition, recent breakthroughs in nano and hybrid technology have made various materials more affordable hosts for enzyme immobilization. This review discusses different approaches to improve enzyme stability in various materials such as nanoparticles, nanofibers, mesoporous materials, sol–gel silica, and alginate-based microspheres. The advantages of stabilized enzyme systems are from its simple separation and ease recovery for reuse, while maintaining activity and selectivity. This review also considers the latest studies conducted on different enzymes immobilized on various support materials with immense potential for biosensor, antibiotic production, food industry, biodiesel production, and bioremediation, because stabilized enzyme systems are expected to be environmental friendly, inexpensive, and easy to use for enzyme-based industrial applications.

Enzyme stabilization by nano/microsized hybrid materials

More than 10 million tons of biodiesel fuel (BDF) have been produced in the world from the transesterification of vegetable oil with methanol by using acid catalysts (sulfuric acid, H2SO4), alkaline catalysts (sodium hydroxide, NaOH or potassium hydroxide, KOH), solid catalysts and enzymes. Unfortunately, the price of BDF is still more expensive than that of petro diesel fuel due to the lack of a suitable raw material oil. Here, we review the best selection of BDF production systems including raw materials, catalysts and production technologies. In addition, glycerol formed as a by-product needs to be converted to useful chemicals to reduce the amount of glycerol waste. With this in mind, we have also reviewed some recent studies on the utilization of glycerol.

Catalytic Technologies for Biodiesel Fuel Production and Utilization of Glycerol: A Review

Due to the dwindling crude oil resources and the detrimental environmental effects of toxic emissions from conventional diesel, biodiesel has gained importance over the last few years as a clean, sustainable, and renewable energy resource. As projected by the Energy Outlook review, a blend of 30 % biodiesel with petro-diesel (B30), is expected to be promoted as an alternative to petro-diesel by the year 2030. From the global perception, biodiesel is estimated to form 70 % of transport fuel which will be in demand by the year 2040. Since biodiesel is produced exclusively by vegetable oil, animal fat, microbial oil, and waste oil, it is renewable and biodegradable. Even though it has various benefits over conventional diesel fuel, yet numerous technical challenges need to be resolved. Among them are the cost of oil, selection of appropriate catalysts, and the development of a suitable technique for economical and efficient synthesis of biodiesel fuel from the vast range of available feedstocks. As 60–80 % cost of biodiesel is due to its feedstock, selection of low cost and sustainable feedstock from the vast varieties of available sources is the most challenging task to be achieved. In this article, the literature of the last twenty years was thoroughly studied and reviewed to examine the status of biodiesel. The present paper discusses the availability of different biodiesel feedstocks and summarises how their characteristics affect biodiesel properties along with the criteria of their selection for sustainable and low-cost production of biodiesel. The transesterification route is considered the most appropriate way for processing triglycerides of lipids into biodiesel which can take place with or without a catalyst. Different catalysts can homogeneously or heterogeneously catalyze the transesterification reaction depending on their solubility in the reaction mixture. The paper reviews the research on biodiesel production with different types of catalysts (alkaline, acidic, and enzymatic), their properties, preferred operating conditions, their suitability, and limitations. Work done on some of the latest intensification techniques for biodiesel production that are capable of managing the mass transfer restrictions of oil and alcohol phases namely, microwave irradiation, ultrasonication, and the co-solvent method are also reviewed. Some other intensification techniques that reduce biodiesel production cost by efficient separation, mixing, purification, and reaction like membrane reactor, motionless mixer, reactive distillation, and in-situ method have also been discussed along with their scope for commercialization in the context of the research work done till date. The review concludes with future perspectives and suggestions regarding the selection criteria of feedstocks, catalysts, and production techniques to make the production of biodiesel cost-effective, fast, energy-efficient, more cleaner, less complex, and sustainable.

A review of the feedstocks, catalysts, and intensification techniques for sustainable biodiesel production

Exploiting waste: towards a sustainable production of biodiesel using Musa acuminata peel ash as a heterogeneous catalyst

Biodiesel production using a renewable mesoporous solid catalyst

New technology for the production of biodiesel fuel

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New technology for the production of biodiesel fuel