Gait Analysis. An Introduction

Human walking is usually conceived as the cyclic rotation of the limbs. The goal of lower-limb movements, however, is the forward translation of the body system, which can be mechanically represented by its center of mass (CoM). Lower limbs act as struts of an inverted pendulum, allowing minimization of muscle work, from infancy to old age. The plantar flexors of the trailing limbs have been identified as the main engines of CoM propulsion. Motion of the CoM can be investigated through refined techniques, but research has been focused on the fields of human and animal physiology rather than clinical medicine. Alterations in CoM motion could reveal motor impairments that are not detectable by clinical observation. The study of the three-dimensional trajectory of the CoM motion represents a clinical frontier. After adjusting for displacement due to the average forward speed, the trajectory assumes a figure-eight shape (dubbed the "bow-tie") with a perimeter about 18 cm long. Its lateral size decreases with walking velocity, thus ensuring dynamic stability. Lateral redirection appears as a critical phase of the step, requiring precise muscle sequencing. The shape and size of the "bow-tie" as functions of dynamically equivalent velocities do not change from child to adulthood, despite anatomical growth. The trajectory of the CoM thus appears to be a promising summary index of both balance and the neural maturation of walking. In asymmetric gaits, the affected lower limb avoids muscle work by pivoting almost passively, but extra work is required from the unaffected side during the next step, in order to keep the body system in motion. Generally, the average work to transport the CoM across a stride remains normal. In more demanding conditions, such as walking faster or uphill, the affected limb can actually provide more work; however, the unaffected limb also provides more work and asymmetry between the steps persists. This learned or acquired asymmetry is a formerly unsuspected challenge to rehabilitation attempts to restore symmetry. Techniques of selective loading of the affected side, which include constraining the motion of the unaffected limb or forcing the use of the affected limb on split-belt treadmills which impose a different velocity and power to either limb, are now under scrutiny.

/pdf/the-motion-of-body-center-of-mass-during-walking-a-review-2ti706edrp.pdf

The Motion of Body Center of Mass During Walking : a Review Oriented to Clinical Applications

Effects of step length and step frequency on lower-limb muscle function in human gait

Most X-ray fluoroscopy systems are stationary and impose restrictions on the measurement of dynamic joint motion; for example, knee-joint kinematics during gait is usually measured with the subject ambulating on a treadmill We developed a computer-controlled, mobile, biplane, X-ray fluoroscopy system to track human body movement for high-speed imaging of 3D joint motion during overground gait A robotic gantry mechanism translates the two X-ray units alongside the subject, tracking and imaging the joint of interest as the subject moves The main aim of the present study was to determine the accuracy with which the mobile imaging system measures 3D knee-joint kinematics during walking In vitro experiments were performed to measure the relative positions of the tibia and femur in an intact human cadaver knee and of the tibial and femoral components of a total knee arthroplasty (TKA) implant during simulated overground gait Accuracy was determined by calculating mean, standard deviation and root-mean-squared errors from differences between kinematic measurements obtained using volumetric models of the bones and TKA components and reference measurements obtained from metal beads embedded in the bones Measurement accuracy was enhanced by the ability to track and image the joint concurrently Maximum root-mean-squared errors were 033 mm and 065 $^{\circ}$ for translations and rotations of the TKA knee and 078 mm and 077 $^{\circ}$ for translations and rotations of the intact knee, which are comparable to results reported for treadmill walking using stationary biplane systems System capability for in vivo joint motion measurement was also demonstrated for overground gait

Mobile Biplane X-Ray Imaging System for Measuring 3D Dynamic Joint Motion During Overground Gait

From normal to fast walking: Impact of cadence and stride length on lower extremity joint moments

Muscle function during gait is invariant to age when walking speed is controlled.

Pedometers are known to have steps estimation issues. This is mainly attributed to their innate acceleration based measuring sensory. A micro-machined gyroscope (better immunity to acceleration) based pedometer is proposed. Through syntactic data recognition of apriori knowledge of human shank's dynamics and temporally precised detection of heel strikes permitted by Wavelet decomposition, an accurate and robust pedometer is acquired.

An accurate and robust gyroscope-gased pedometer

This paper describes a method of detecting and analyzing breathing rate and approximate depth during physical activity in a Bluetooth Wireless On-Body-Network (OBN) in the context of a Spinal Cord Injured patient. Conventional signal processing techniques and sensor fusion through a Linear Kalman Filter will be used to fuse signals from a piezoelectric breathing band and two tri-axis accelerometers. Results will show that the proposed method provides very accurate measurements of breathing rate and depth at rest and during physical activity.

Wireless On-Body-Network breathing rate and depth measurement during activity

Lower-limb muscle function in healthy young and older adults across a range of walking speeds.

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