Stereolithography is a solid freeform technique (SFF) that was introduced in the late 1980s Although many other techniques have been developed since then, stereolithography remains one of the most powerful and versatile of all SFF techniques It has the highest fabrication accuracy and an increasing number of materials that can be processed is becoming available In this paper we discuss the characteristic features of the stereolithography technique and compare it to other SFF techniques The biomedical applications of stereolithography are reviewed, as well as the biodegradable resin materials that have been developed for use with stereolithography Finally, an overview of the application of stereolithography in preparing porous structures for tissue engineering is given

A review on stereolithography and its applications in biomedical engineering

Three-dimensional (3D) laser micro- and nanoprinting based upon multi-photon absorption has made its way from early scientific discovery to industrial manufacturing processes, e.g., for advanced microoptical components. However, so far, most realized 3D architectures are composed of only a single polymeric material. Here, we review 3D printing of multi-materials on the nano- and microscale. We start with material properties that have been realized, using multi-photon photoresists. Printed materials include bulk polymers, conductive polymers, metals, nanoporous polymers, silica glass, chalcogenide glasses, inorganic single crystals, natural polymers, stimuli-responsive materials, and polymer composites. Next, we review manual and automated processes achieving dissimilar material properties in a single 3D structure by sequentially photo-exposing multiple photoresists as 3D analogs of 2D multicolor printing. Instructive examples from biology, optics, mechanics, and electronics are discussed. An emerging approach – without counterpart in 2D graphical printing – prints 3D structures combining dissimilar material properties in one 3D structure by using only a single photoresist. A controlled stimulus applied during the 3D printing process defines and determines material properties on the voxel level. Change of laser power and/or wavelength, or application of quasi-static electric fields allow for the seamless manipulation of desired materials properties.

Multi-material multi-photon 3D laser micro- and nanoprinting

The developments in ceramic vat photopolymerization technology have the potential to revolutionize the manufacture and application of complex and functional ceramics. At present, there are still defects in parts fabricated by ceramic vat photopolymerization, which are caused by selected materials, layer-by-layer printing, and part processing. These defects restrict the shaping accuracy and performance of ceramic parts and hinder the further application and development of this technology. It is necessary to systematically review the generation and control of defects in ceramic vat photopolymerization. This review summarized the defect types (geometry-related defects and performance-related defects), defect detection methods, theoretical analysis and numerical modeling simulation of defects, defect generation mechanisms, defect control, and innovative methods of ceramic vat photopolymerization. The feasible methods of defect control and performance improvement were proposed, including particle coating, slurry improvement, new green part processing methods, novel printing manners, composite ceramic or precursor, optimized debinding and sintering. The main challenges (caused by both additive printing and traditional processes; caused by the light-curing principle itself; and the right application for various ceramic vat photopolymerization technologies) were discussed, and future research directions for ceramic vat photopolymerization had prospected. 

Research progress of the defects and innovations of ceramic vat photopolymerization

Two-photon lithography (TPL) is a versatile technology for additive manufacturing of 2D and 3D micro/nanostructures with sub-wavelength resolved features. Recent advancement in laser technology has enabled the application of TPL fabricated structures in several fields such as microelectronics, photonics, optoelectronics, microfluidics, and plasmonic devices. However, the lack of two-photon polymerizable resins (TPPRs) induces bottleneck to the growth of TPL to its true potential, and hence continuous research efforts are focused on developing efficient TPPRs. In this article, we review the recent advancements in PI and TPPR formulation and the impact of process parameters on fabrication of 2D and 3D structures for specific applications. The fundamentals of TPL are described, followed by techniques used for achieving improved resolution and functional micro/nanostructures. Finally, a critical outlook and future prospects of TPPR formulation for specific applications are presented.

Two decades of two-photon lithography: Materials science perspective for additive manufacturing of 2D/3D nano-microstructures.

Additive manufacturing of ceramic and glass materials has been developed extensively over the past years, revealing strengths and limitations of the various technologies. In this work, a hybrid extrusion-photopolymerization process is developed to exploit the benefits of both approaches. Their combination allows for more complex geometries with less rheological constraints and no influence of scattering and/or absorption. With this method, transparent silica glass 3D honeycomb-like structures are fabricated starting from a suspension that combines silica particles and a silicon alkoxide. The rheological behavior and reactivity of the ink are tailored with an appropriate blend of acrylates as well as with the alkoxide addition. The latter also contributes to the final ceramic yield, allowing for faster thermal treatments despite a low particle loading. The final components closely match the shape provided by the CAD model; their physical properties confirm the formation of a fully dense silica glass after the heat treatment. 

Hybrid additive manufacturing for the fabrication of freeform transparent silica glass components

Photo-curable suspensions are important materials for shaping complex-structured ceramic and glass components. However, most systems undergo slow debinding and sintering so to avoid structural collapse by rapid gas generation from polymers. Here, we propose a new strategy to fabricate interparticle photo-cross-linkable suspensions for rapid three-dimensional structuring with short debinding and sintering times. SiO2 particles modified with polyethyleneimine complexed with oleic acid (PEI-OA) are dispersed into a refractive-index-tuned solvent, where a photo-radical initiator and a lower-than-typical amount of multifunctional acrylates (MAs) were dissolved. The SiO2 suspension is cured by the photo-radical polymerization of MA and the Michael additive reaction between polymerized MA and amino groups of PEI-OA on SiO2 particles. These photo-curable suspensions can be employed in various shaping processes, from micro-scale stereolithography to centimeter-scale silicone molding. The SiO2 green compacts with complex structures are also debinded and sintered into transparent glass components by rapid heating. Glasses and ceramics offer attractive properties for optical applications, but shaping them into components is challenging. Here, photo-cross-linkable suspensions enable the fabrication of structured, transparent SiO2 glass components quicker than for typical photo-curing processes.

/pdf/rapid-three-dimensional-structuring-of-transparent-sio2-4gg97cxc4k.pdf

Rapid three-dimensional structuring of transparent SiO2 glass using interparticle photo-cross-linkable suspensions

Effects of suspension processing conditions on the multi-scale structural changes of photocured SiO2 bodies during sintering process: An operando observation using optical coherence tomography

We propose a simple autofocusing method for two-photon lithography with an accuracy of sub-micron scale. We achieved the autofocusing by image processing using transmission images of photopolymerized voxels and demonstrated mass-fabrication of spiral square structures.

Simple autofocusing method by image processing for two-photon lithography

We propose a simple autofocusing technique that can be introduced into conventional two-photon lithography systems without additional devices. Autofocusing is achieved by image processing using transmission images of photopolymerized voxels. The signal-to-noise ratio of transmission images was improved by optimal low-pass filtering to detect voxels in them. The focal point was detected with an accuracy of about 250 nm from the difference images. Further, we demonstrated mass-fabrication of a 5 × 5 spiral square array with an area of 900 × 900 µm2 using this method. The method has potential application in constructing low-cost, compact and versatile two-photon lithography apparatus.

Simple autofocusing method by image processing using transmission images for large-scale two-photon lithography.

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Rapid three-dimensional structuring of transparent SiO2 glass using interparticle photo-cross-linkable suspensions

Effects of suspension processing conditions on the multi-scale structural changes of photocured SiO2 bodies during sintering process: An operando observation using optical coherence tomography

Simple autofocusing method by image processing for two-photon lithography

Simple autofocusing method by image processing using transmission images for large-scale two-photon lithography.