The rapid development of the femtosecond laser has revolutionized materials processing due to its unique characteristics of ultrashort pulse width and extremely high peak intensity. The short pulse width suppresses the formation of a heat-affected zone, which is vital for ultrahigh precision fabrication, whereas the high peak intensity allows nonlinear interactions such as multiphoton absorption and tunneling ionization to be induced in transparent materials, which provides versatility in terms of the materials that can be processed. More interestingly, irradiation with tightly focused femtosecond laser pulses inside transparent materials makes three-dimensional (3D) micro- and nanofabrication available due to efficient confinement of the nonlinear interactions within the focal volume. Additive manufacturing (stereolithography) based on multiphoton absorption (two-photon polymerization) enables the fabrication of 3D polymer micro- and nanostructures for photonic devices, micro- and nanomachines, and microfluidic devices, and has applications for biomedical and tissue engineering. Subtractive manufacturing based on internal modification and fabrication can realize the direct fabrication of 3D microfluidics, micromechanics, microelectronics, and photonic microcomponents in glass. These microcomponents can be easily integrated in a single glass microchip by a simple procedure using a femtosecond laser to realize more functional microdevices, such as optofluidics and integrated photonic microdevices. The highly localized multiphoton absorption of a tightly focused femtosecond laser in glass can also induce strong absorption only at the interface of two closely stacked glass substrates. Consequently, glass bonding can be performed based on fusion welding with femtosecond laser irradiation, which provides the potential for applications in electronics, optics, microelectromechanical systems, medical devices, microfluidic devices, and small satellites. This review paper describes the concepts and principles of femtosecond laser 3D micro- and nanofabrication and presents a comprehensive review on the state-of-the-art, applications, and the future prospects of this technology.

Femtosecond laser three-dimensional micro- and nanofabrication

Ultrafast laser nanostructuring of photopolymers: a decade of advances

The phenomenon of light's momentum was first observed in the laboratory at the beginning of the twentieth century, and its potential for manipulating microscopic particles was demonstrated by Ashkin some 70 years later. Since that initial demonstration, and the seminal 1986 paper where a single-beam gradient-force trap was realized, optical trapping has been exploited as both a rich example of physical phenomena and a powerful tool for sensitive measurement. This review outlines the underlying theory of optical traps, and explores many of the physical observations that have been made in such systems. These phenomena include 'optical binding', where trapped objects interact with one another through the trapping light field. We also discuss a number of the applications of 'optical tweezers' across the physical and life sciences, as well as covering some of the issues involved in constructing and using such a tool.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0034-4885/76/2/026401/pdf

Optical trapping and binding

Two-photon polymerization (TPP) is a powerful and potential technology to fabricate true three-dimensional (3D) micro/nanostructures of various materials with subdiffraction-limit resolution. And it has been applied to microoptics, electronics, communications, biomedicine, microfluidic devices, MEMS and metamaterials. These applications, such as microoptics and photon crystals, put forward rigorous requirements on the processing accuracy of TPP, including the dimensional accuracy, shape accuracy and surface roughness and the processing accuracy influences their performance, even invalidate them. In order to fabricate precise 3D micro/nanostructures, the factors influencing the processing accuracy need to be considered comprehensively and systematically. In this paper, we review the basis of TPP micro/nanofabrication, including mechanism of TPP, experimental set-up for TPP and scaling laws of resolution of TPP. Then, we discuss the factors influencing the processing accuracy. Finally, we summarize the methods reported lately to improve the processing accuracy from improving the resolution and changing spatial arrangement of voxels.

A review on the processing accuracy of two-photon polymerization

Fabrication technology for three-dimensional microstructures with submicrometer accuracy has been needed in the fields of modern optics, such as micro mechanical system driven with photon pressure[1, 2] and laser-trapping near-filed optical microscopy[3]. However, the present accuracy with stereolithography[4] is not yet satisfactory to this purpose. Moreover, it is not so flexible to make a three- dimensional structure with the present technique. In this paper, we propose a new microfabrication method in which a point in three-dimensional volume of UV photopolymerizing resin is photopolymerized through two-photon absorption process. The microfabrication with two-photon absorption drastically improves the depth resolution due to a nonlinearlity between the power of the irradiation and that of the absorption[5].

Three-dimensional microfabrication with two-photon absorbed photopolymerization

An optically driven micropump that employs viscous drag exerted on a spinning microrotor with left- and right-handed spiral blades on its rotational axis has been developed using two-photon microfabrication. It was demonstrated that the twin spiral microrotor provides a higher rotation speed than a single spiral microrotor. The rotation speed reached 560 rpm at a laser power of 500 mW. The twin spiral microrotor was also applied to a viscous micropump with a U-shaped microchannel. To pump fluid, the twin spiral microrotor located at the corner of the U-shaped microchannel was rotated by focusing a laser beam. The flow field inside the U-shaped microchannel was analyzed using the finite element method (FEM) based on the Navier-Stokes equation to optimize the shape of the microchannel. It was confirmed that the rotation of the twin spiral microrotor generated a unidirectional laminar flow. Finally, a tandem micropump using two twin spiral microrotors was driven by a dual optical trapping system using a spatial light modulation technique.

Optically driven micropump with a twin spiral microrotor.

We proposed a novel viscous micropump driven by a Laguerre-Gaussian beam (LG beam). The micropump consists of a U-shaped microchannel and a microrotor. In this micropump, the rotation of the microrotor enables to transport fluid by use of the viscous drag surrounding the microrotor. To rotate the microrotor, we developed an optical manipulation system using a LG beam. Since LG beam has orbital angular momentum, it enables to rotate multiple microparticles along its doughnut-ring-like transversal intensity distribution. We examined the dependence of the rotation of multiple microparticles on topological charge l of LG beam. In our preliminary experiments, the highest rotation speed of 240 rpm with a rotation radius of 7.5 µm was obtained with a LG beam with topological charge l = 16. According to the result, we designed and fabricated LG beam driven microrotors of radius of 7.5 µm by using two-photon microfabrication. By optimizing the thickness of the microrotor, a microrotor driven at 240 rpm was produced by two-photon microfabrication. Finally, viscous micropump using the high-speed microrotor was developed.

A viscous micropump using a spinning microrotor driven by a Laguerre-Gaussian beam

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Optically driven micropump with a twin spiral microrotor.

A viscous micropump using a spinning microrotor driven by a Laguerre-Gaussian beam