Preparation of high internal phase Pickering emulsion by centrifugation for 3D printing and astaxanthin delivery

In this study, the effects of heating temperature (70 °C, 80 °C, 90 °C) and egg white dosage (5%, 7.5%, 10%) on the physicochemical properties of chicken egg white microgels (EWMGs) were investigated. The results showed that both temperature and EW dosage would affect the EWMG in terms of its particle size, surface hydrophobicity, contact angle and zeta potential. At a given temperature, the content of α-helix in the EWMG was positively correlated to the protein concentration; while at a fixed EW dosage, the content of α-helix in the EWMG was negatively correlated to the temperature. High inter-phase Pickering emulsions (HIPEs) with EWMGs prepared at high temperature-low protein as stabilizer were shown to have smaller droplet size and better thermal and centrifugal stability. Rheological analysis of these HIPEs showed slight upward trends for both storage modulus (G′) and loss modulus (G″) and relatively weak frequency dependency. The HIPEs showing both shear thinning and recovery rate can be used as good food ink for 3D printing, and the HIPEs stabilized by the EWMG obtained at 90°C-5% performed the best. 

Preparation and 3D printing of high internal-phase Pickering emulsions stabilized by chicken egg white microgel

Pickering emulsions have attracted considerable attention owing to the stability and functionality. In this study, zein/hyaluronic acid (ZH) nanoparticles were prepared and applied for stabilizing astaxanthin encapsulated Pickering emulsions. By non-covalent interaction between Zein and hyaluronic acid (HA), the conformation of zein changed and therefore improved the wettability of ZH nanoparticles. Unlike the spherical zein nanoparticles, ZH nanoparticles possessed a cross-linked structure with rough surface. Confocal laser scanning microscopy indicated that the nanoparticles accumulated at the oil-water interface. The Pickering emulsion stabilized by ZH nanoparticles exhibited high viscoelasticity and a solid-like behavior, as well as excellent stability during the storage. In vitro digestion results revealed that the presence of HA coating prevented the emulsion from pepsin hydrolysis and achieved efficient delivery of astaxanthin. This work confirmed that Pickering emulsion stabilized by ZH nanoparticles could be used as an effective deliver system for bioactive substances. 

Zein/hyaluronic acid nanoparticle stabilized Pickering emulsion for astaxanthin encapsulation.

Egg white protein (EWP)-sodium alginate (SA) nanoparticles were fabricated by controlled heating (75 °C, 10 min) of an aqueous solution containing EWP and SA (pH 7.0). The nanoparticles formed had a relatively small average diameter (350–460 nm) and polydispersity index (PDI< 0.3). Hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions were the main forces involved in particle formation as determined by Fourier transform infrared spectra and intrinsic fluorescence analyses. The composite nanoparticles had contact angles (θ) of about 90°, which allowed them to be used as particle-based emulsifiers to form and stabilize concentrated oil-in-water Pickering emulsions (70% oil). Inverted fluorescence microscopy showed that the composite nanoparticles adsorbed to the surfaces of the oil droplets in these emulsions. Rheological analysis showed that the Pickering emulsions had predominantly elastic-like properties and exhibited strong shear thinning behavior. The apparent shear viscosity, elastic modulus, and viscous modulus of the emulsions depended on particle size and alginate concentration. A heat treatment (90 °C, 20 min) greatly increased the viscoelastic properties of the emulsions, which was attributed to protein unfolding and aggregation. Heating improved the resistance of the Pickering emulsions to freezing and thawing. This study provides a simple and convenient method to fabricate semi-solid Pickering emulsions using natural ingredients. These emulsions may have a variety of applications in foods, including as edible inks for 3D food printing. 

Pickering emulsions stabilized by egg white protein-alginate nanoparticles: Freeze-thaw stability after heating

The effect of a high internal phase emulsion (HIPE) on three-dimensional-printed surimi gel inks was studied. Increasing the concentration of collagen peptide decreased the particle size of HIPE droplets and improved the viscoelasticity and stability. For example, when the collagen peptide concentration was 5 wt%, the viscoelasticity of the HIPE was high, as indicated by the presence of small and uniform particles, which formed a monolayer in the outer layer of the oil droplets to form stable a HIPE. A HIPE was used as the filling material to fill the surimi gel network, which reduced the porosity of the network. Surimi protein and peptides have dual emulsifying effects on the stabilization of oil. After adding the emulsion, the texture, gel properties and rheological properties of the surimi were reduced, and its printing adaptability was improved. This study provides new ideas for the production of surimi and its application in 3D printing. 

Effect of a collagen peptide-fish oil high internal phase emulsion on the printability and gelation of 3D-printed surimi gel inks.

Pickering emulsion stabilized by gliadin nanoparticles for astaxanthin delivery

Novel high internal phase oleogels-in-water pickering emulsions stabilized solely by whey protein isolate for 3D printing and fucoxanthin delivery

Dysphagia, a condition characterized by difficulty swallowing, has emerged as a threat to health. Herein, we investigated the feasibility of preparing a novel 3D-printed dysphagia diet using emulsions and gellan gum. A gel network was facilitated by the inclusion of gellan gum, which also helped to reduce the size of the oil droplets. Emulsion gels (with 0.3 %–0.5 % gellan gum) were stable at 25 °C for 30 days and tolerated a high ionic concentration of 800 mmol L−1. Emulsion gels remained stable after heat treatment and centrifugation. The excellent stability of the emulsion gels was related to the three-dimensional network developed by the gellan gum. The rheological results validated the solid-state behavior, shear thinning behavior and structural recovery of emulsion gels. Emulsion gels with 0.3 %–0.5 % gellan gum were suitable for 3D printing since they had high printing accuracy, self-support, and smooth surface texture. International Diet Standardization Initiative (IDDIS) tests have shown that emulsion gels can be classified as a level 3–5 dysphagia diet. In addition, the bioaccessibility of astaxanthin increased 1.7 times after being encapsulated by emulsion gels. Overall, these results demonstrate the potential of emulsion gels in the development of novel 3D-printed diets for dysphagia and bioactive protection. 

Development and characterization of emulsion gels prepared via gliadin-based colloidal particles and gellan gum with tunable rheological properties for 3D printed dysphagia diet.

Waterborne epoxy resin (WER) emulsified asphalt (WEREA) has the advantages of high viscosity and strength of epoxy asphalt, as well as a simple construction process, so it is used widely in asphalt pavement maintenance and repair projects. This paper investigated the comprehensive properties, the microstructure, the modification mechanism, and the strength formation mechanism of WEREA. The results of bond strength tests, adhesion tests between emulsified asphalt and coarse aggregate, conventional performance tests, and multistress creep recovery (MSCR) tests showed that with the increase of WER content, the adhesive properties and creep recovery properties at high temperature of the WEREA gradually improved, and gradually became the properties of brittle materials. When the WER content was 15%, the irrecoverable creep compliance of the WEREA stabilized and it met heavy traffic demand. In addition, fluorescence microscopy (FM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed that WER changed from having an island structure to having an epoxy skeleton structure in the WEREA. The results of Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) testing showed that during the modification of the emulsified asphalt by the WER, no new substances were generated, which indicated that the sample possessed the mechanism of intermolecular physical blending. The test results were used to analyze the strength formation process of WEREA, which provides theoretical guidance for other researchers to study WEREA. 

Study of the Properties of Waterborne Epoxy Resin Emulsified Asphalt and Its Modification Mechanism

Double emulsions (DEs), one of the most promising dispersion systems, have attracted much attention in the food industry. However, instability and the need for synthetic surfactants hinder the application of DEs. The development of clean-label DEs with good stability remains a challenge. Herein, novel DE gels (DEGs) with water-in-oil-in-water morphology were developed by combining multiple gelation and emulsification processes, which can stabilize the dispersion system without the synthetic surfactants used in conventional emulsions. Gelatin and beeswax were used to gelatinize the internal aqueous and oil phases respectively. Sodium caseinate acted as the external aqueous phase emulsifier, while a blend of gellan gum (GG) and sodium alginate (SA) was introduced to create DEGs. The networks formed by SA and GG in the water phase inhibited the movement of droplets in the emulsions and improved their stability. The DEGs can withstand up to five freeze-thaw cycles and at least 100 d of storage. In addition, the textural properties of DEGs were characterized and the results suggested that DEGs could be used as a cheese simulant. DEGs could be used as carriers for the co-delivery of phycocyanin and astaxanthin. Their encapsulation efficiency was greater than 90%. Furthermore, in vitro digestion showed that DEGs significantly improved the bioavailability of astaxanthin and phycocyanin, which increased from 18.5 ± 0.15% and 16.3 ± 0.45% to 43.2 ± 0.35% and 41.6 ± 0.5%, respectively. In conclusion, we have demonstrated a novel strategy for the preparation of clean-label DEGs, which could be used as a carrier for the co-delivery of hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances. 

Fabrication of novel W/O/W emulsion gels using beeswax stabilized W/O: Preparation, characterization and co-delivery of phycocyanin and astaxanthin

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