Microplastics (MPs) are pervasive across ecosystems, presenting substantial risks to human health. Developing a comprehensive review of MPs is crucial due to the growing evidence of their widespread presence and potential harmful effects. Despite the growth in research, considerable uncertainties persist regarding their transport dynamics, prevalence, toxicological impacts, and the potential long-term health effects they may cause. This review thoroughly evaluates recent advancements in research on MPs and their implications for human health, including estimations of human exposure through ingestion, inhalation, and skin contact. It also quantifies the distribution and accumulation of MPs in various organs and tissues. The review discusses the mechanisms enabling MPs to cross biological barriers and the role of particle size in their translocation. To ensure methodological rigor, this review adheres to the PRISMA guidelines, explicitly detailing the literature search strategy, inclusion criteria, and the quality assessment of selected studies. The review concludes that MPs pose significant toxicological risks, identifies critical gaps in current knowledge, and recommends future research directions to elucidate the prolonged effects of MPs on human health. This work aims to offer a scientific framework for mitigating MP-related hazards and establishes a foundation for ongoing investigation. 

Microplastics in the human body: A comprehensive review of exposure, distribution, migration mechanisms, and toxicity

Plastic waste released into the environments breaks down into microplastics due to weathering, ultraviolet (UV) radiation, mechanical abrasion, and animal grazing. However, little is known about the plastic fragmentation mediated by microbial degradation. Marine plastic-degrading bacteria may have a double-edged effect in removing plastics. In this study, two ubiquitous marine bacteria, Alcanivorax xenomutans and Halomonas titanicae, were confirmed to degrade polystyrene (PS) and lead to microplastic and nanoplastic generation. Biodegradation occurred during bacterial growth with PS as the sole energy source, and the formation of carboxyl and carboxylic acid groups, decreased heat resistance, generation of PS metabolic intermediates in cultures, and plastic weight loss were observed. The generation of microplastics was dynamic alongside PS biodegradation. The size of the released microplastics gradually changed from microsized plastics on the first day (1,344 nm and 1,480 nm, respectively) to nanoplastics on the 30th day (614 nm and 496 nm, respectively) by the two tested strains. The peak release from PS films reached 6.29 × 106 particles/L and 7.64 × 106 particles/L from degradation by A. xenomutans (Day 10) and H. titanicae (Day 5), respectively. Quantification revealed that 1.3% and 1.9% of PS was retained in the form of micro- and nanoplastics, while 4.5% and 1.9% were mineralized by A. xenomutans and H. titanicae at the end of incubation, respectively. This highlights the negative effects of microbial degradation, which results in the continuous release of numerous microplastics, especially nanoplastics, as a notable secondary pollution into marine ecosystems. Their fates in the vast aquatic system and their impact on marine lives are noted for further study. Polystyrene has long been widely applied and disposed improperly, which has caused serious environmental problems. Microplastics impose a great threat to marine ecosystems, yet little is known about the process of plastic fragmentation. Being cosmopolitan in global oceans, A. xenomutans and H. titanicae play a certain role in biodegradation and microplastic formation. However, nanoplastics and microplastics are released more than their capability to mineralize. This alerts the detrimental side of plastic-degrading bacteria. This is the report of microplastic formation mediated by marine bacteria. Together with mechanical effects, microbial processes may promote plastic fragmentation and increase the risk of microplastics in marine ecosystems. 

Continuous Generation and Release of Microplastics and Nanoplastics from Polystyrene by Plastic-degrading Marine Bacteria

Thermal stresses during storage and usage impact plastic food-contact materials, causing microplastic migration into food. The research on this topic has recently garnered significant attention, and a thorough understanding of the efforts undertaken to advance this field is vital but lacking. This systematic review of 35 peer-reviewed publications aims to close this gap by assessing current migration testing and characterization approaches, as well as contamination prevention measures, keeping abreast of recent advancements, and presenting key considerations and recommendations for future research. Overall, microplastic migration is studied by subjecting food-simulating liquids to conventional and microwave heating and storage conditions, often utilizing electron microscopic imaging or spectroscopy. Teabags and single-use disposable cups are the most studied and have a higher likelihood of microplastic migration. The dearth of method standardization makes comparing studies difficult and merits attention. More research is needed to understand the potential risks to human health from their exposure. 

Migration testing of microplastics in plastic food-contact materials: Release, characterization, pollution level, and influencing factors

At present, the development and usage of degradable plastics instead of traditional plastics is an effective way to solve the pollution of marine microplastics. Poly (butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) is known as one of the most promising biodegradable materials. Nevertheless, the degradation rate of PBAT in water environment is slow. In this work, we successfully prepared four kinds of high molecular weight polyester copolyesters (PBATGA) via quaternary copolymerization. The results showed that the intrinsic viscosity of PBATGA copolymers ranged from 0.74 to 1.01 dL/g with a glycolic acid content of 0–40%. PBATGA copolymers had excellent flexibility and thermal stability. The tensile strength was 5~40 MPa, the elongation at break was greater than 460%, especially the elongation at break of PBATGA10 at 1235%, and the thermal decomposition temperature of PBATGA copolyesters was higher than 375 °C. It was found that PBATGA copolyester had a faster hydrolysis rate than PBAT, and the weight loss of PBATGA copolymers showed a tendency of pH = 12 > Lipase ≈ pH = 7 > pH = 2. The quaternary polymerization of PBAT will have the advantage of achieving industrialization, unlike the previous polymerization process. In addition, the polymerization of PBATGA copolyesters not only utilizes the by-products of the coal chemical industry, but also it can be promising in the production of biodegradable packaging to reduce marine plastic pollution.

/pdf/study-on-properties-and-degradation-behavior-of-poly-adipic-1t27dwl6.pdf

Study on Properties and Degradation Behavior of Poly (Adipic Acid/Butylene Terephthalate-Co-Glycolic Acid) Copolyester Synthesized by Quaternary Copolymerization

The ubiquity of microplastics (MPs) in natural surroundings leads to inevitable human exposure. MPs are reported to be present in daily food products, viz. bottled water, sea salt, packaged foods, beverages, fruits, crops, fishes, and sea foods, mainly due to their unique physical and chemical characteristics, leading to their human exposure across all age groups. In terrestrial environments, soil serves as a potential route of MP exposure to plant communities through plastic mulching, which can have implications on crops and transfer to human trough food chain. Consumption of MPs by aquatic organisms also causes a potential health hazards along food chain through trophic transfer. MPs are also reported to transfer from mother to child via placenta and breast milk. Additionally, MPs can trigger immune responses and hypersensitivity, and induce cellular, gastrointestinal, and developmental cytotoxicity. The aim of the present review is to provide a comprehensive idea on MP exposure through daily food items and their possible health concerns with plausible toxicity pathways. Future research should be oriented toward examining multi-level trophic transmission of MPs. Further, more in vivo studies should be conducted to understand the underlying mechanisms of MP uptake, retention, and depuration in the human body. 

Human Exposure to Dietary Microplastics and Health Risk: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract Plastic take-out food containers may release microplastics (MPs) into food and pose a potential risk to food safety and human health. Here, after being subjected to hot water treatment, MPs released from three types of plastic food containers (polypropylene, PP; polyethylene, PE; expanded polystyrene, EPS) were identified by micro-Raman spectroscopy. The results showed that the size of released MPs ranged from 0.8–38 μm and over 96% MPs were smaller than 10 μm. Various MPs concentrations were found from the three types of containers, that is, 1.90 × 104, 1.01 × 105, and 2.82 × 106 particles/L on average from PP, PE, and EPS, respectively. Moreover, based on thermal and morphology analysis, we discovered that both relaxations of the polymer chains in the rubbery state and defects caused by processing techniques might contribute to the release of MPs. Thus, such release can be reduced by increasing the thermal stability of the materials and mitigating the defects generated during production.

Analysis of microplastics released from plastic take-out food containers based on thermal properties and morphology study

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Analysis of microplastics released from plastic take-out food containers based on thermal properties and morphology study