An overview (with 376 refs.) is given here on the current state of methods for electrochemical sensing of glucose based on the use of advanced nanomaterials. An introduction into the field covers aspects of enzyme based sensing versus nonenzymatic sensing using nanomaterials. The next chapter cover the most commonly used nanomaterials for use in such sensors, with sections on uses of noble metals, transition metals, metal oxides, metal hydroxides, and metal sulfides, on bimetallic nanoparticles and alloys, and on other composites. A further section treats electrodes based on the use of carbon nanomaterials (with subsections on carbon nanotubes, on graphene, graphene oxide and carbon dots, and on other carbonaceous nanomaterials. The mechanisms for electro-catalysis are also discussed, and several Tables are given where the performance of sensors is being compared. Finally, the review addresses merits and limitations (such as the frequent need for working in strongly etching alkaline solutions and the need for diluting samples because sensors often have analytical ranges that are far below the glucose levels found in blood). We also address market/technology gaps in comparison to commercially available enzymatic sensors.

Electrochemical nonenzymatic sensing of glucose using advanced nanomaterials

Facile synthesis of ultrafine Co3O4 nanocrystals embedded carbon matrices with specific skeletal structures as efficient non-enzymatic glucose sensors

Convenient determination of glucose in a sensitive, reliable and cost-effective way has aroused sustained research passion, bringing along assiduous investigation of high-performance electroactive nanomaterials to build enzymeless sensors. In addition to the intrinsic electrocatalytic capability of the sensing materials, electrode architecture at the microscale is also crucial for fully enhancing the performance. In this work, free-standing porous CuO nanowire (NW) was taken as a model sensing material to illustrate this point, where an in situ formed 3D CuO nanowire array (NWA) and CuO nanowires pile (NWP) immobilized with polymer binder by conventional drop-casting technique were both studied for enzymeless glucose sensing. The NWA electrode exhibited greatly promoted electrochemistry characterized by decreased overpotential for electro-oxidation of glucose and over 5-fold higher sensitivity compared to the NWP counterpart, benefiting from the binder-free nanoarray structure. Besides, its sensing performance was also satisfying in terms of rapidness, selectivity and durability. Further, the CuO NWA was utilized to fabricate a flexible sensor which showed excellent performance stability against mechanical bending. Thanks to its favorable electrode architecture, the CuO NWA is believed to offer opportunities for building high-efficiency flexible electrochemical devices.

Flexible 3D porous CuO nanowire arrays for enzymeless glucose sensing: in situ engineered versus ex situ piled.

A review (350 references) is given to the interest of mesoporous materials for designing electrochemical sensors. After a brief summary of the implication of template-based ordered mesoporous materials in electrochemical science, the various types of inorganic and organic-inorganic hybrid mesostructures used to date in electroanalysis and the corresponding electrode configurations are described. The various sensor applications are then discussed on the basis of comprehensive tables and some representative illustrations. The main detection schemes developed in the field are (volt)amperometric sensing subsequent to preconcentration and electrocatalytic detection.

Mesoporous Materials-Based Electrochemical Sensors

The overview of the published data on a new class of polyelectrolytes—the so-called polymeric ionic liquids or poly(ionic liquid)s—is presented The peculiarities of their synthesis and the factors affecting their molar masses, solubility, ionic conductivity, electrochemical stability, and thermal properties are discussed The mainstreams in the application of poly(ionic liquid)s and materials formed on their basis are illustrated by specific examples

Poly(ionic liquid)s: Synthesis, properties, and application

Large surface area carbon material with ordered mesopores for highly selective determination of l-tyrosine in the presence of l-cysteine

We report on a sensor for epinephrine (EP) that is based on an ITO electrode modified with multi-walled carbon nanotubes pre-coated with a polymerized ionic liquid (PIL-MWNTs). A chitosan film was then electrodeposited on the ITO electrode in the presence of EP (the template) and the PIL-MWNTs. This film acts as an excellent recognition matrix due to its excellent film-forming ability and the many functional groups that favor hydrogen bond formation with the target (EP). The PIL-MWNTs, in turn, can improve the sensing performance due to their good electrical conductivity, high dispersity, and large surface area. The imprinted films were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform IR spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis. The electrochemistry of the imprinted electrode was investigated by cyclic voltammetry, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, differential pulse voltammetry and chronoamperometry. The response to EP is linear in the 0.2 μM to 0.67 mM concentration range, and the detection limit is as low as 60 nM (at an S/N of 3). The electrode is reusable and offers good reproducibility and stability.

Sensing epinephrine with an ITO electrode modified with an imprinted chitosan film containing multi-walled carbon nanotubes and a polymerized ionic liquid

Dopant-stimulated CuO nanofibers for electro-oxidation and determination of glucose

Ultrafine CuO nanoparticles (UCNs) were well-isolated in the nano-channels of ordered mesoporous carbon (OMC) via a double solvent procedure. In this approach, uniform OMC meso-channels of large surface area acted as nanoreactors embedded with small nanoparticles. n-Hexane was used as hydrophobic solvent to disperse OMC, and hydrophilic Cu(NO3)2 aqueous solution served as a precursor to fill the nano-channels. The interfacial force between double solvents of Cu(NO3)2 and n-hexane facilitated the precursor filling within the OMC mesopores, and the subsequent heat treatment triggered in situ isolation of UCNs within OMC porous channels. This final product was denoted as UCNs@OMC, and the structure and morphology of UCNs@OMC were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and N2-sorption. Increased glucose oxidation currents implied the accessibility of the active catalytic sites of UCNs@OMC, and an UCNs@OMC based glucose sensor was fabricated and tested exhibiting good reproducibility and selectivity.

Ultrafine CuO nanoparticles isolated by ordered mesoporous carbon for catalysis and electroanalysis

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Large surface area carbon material with ordered mesopores for highly selective determination of l-tyrosine in the presence of l-cysteine

Sensing epinephrine with an ITO electrode modified with an imprinted chitosan film containing multi-walled carbon nanotubes and a polymerized ionic liquid

Dopant-stimulated CuO nanofibers for electro-oxidation and determination of glucose

Ultrafine CuO nanoparticles isolated by ordered mesoporous carbon for catalysis and electroanalysis