Liquid biopsy refers to the sampling and molecular analysis of the biofluids of circulating tumor cells, extracellular vesicles, nucleic acids, and so forth. Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles with sizes between 30–150 nm. They are secreted by multivesicular bodies through exocytosis in live cells and can participate in intercellular communication due to their contents, including nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids. Herein, we investigate publication frequencies on exosomes over the past 10 years, and review recent clinical studies on liquid biopsy of exosomes in the fields of oncology, pregnancy disorders, cardiovascular diseases, and organ transplantation. We also describe the advantages of exosomes as an effective liquid biopsy tool and the progression of exosome extraction methods. Finally, we depict the commercial development of exosome research and discuss the future role of exosomes in liquid biopsy.

/pdf/application-of-exosomes-as-liquid-biopsy-in-clinical-4dw9yvenlc.pdf

Application of exosomes as liquid biopsy in clinical diagnosis.

The biology, function, and applications of exosomes in cancer

Exosomes are a subset of extracellular vesicles that carry specific combinations of proteins, nucleic acids, metabolites, and lipids. Mounting evidence suggests that exosomes participate in intercellular communication and act as important molecular vehicles in the regulation of numerous physiological and pathological processes, including cancer development. Exosomes are released by various cell types under both normal and pathological conditions, and they can be found in multiple bodily fluids. Moreover, exosomes carrying a wide variety of important macromolecules provide a window into altered cellular or tissue states. Their presence in biological fluids renders them an attractive, minimally invasive approach for liquid biopsies with potential biomarkers for cancer diagnosis, prediction, and surveillance. Due to their biocompatibility and low immunogenicity and cytotoxicity, exosomes have potential clinical applications in the development of innovative therapeutic approaches. Here, we summarize recent advances in various technologies for exosome isolation for cancer research. We outline the functions of exosomes in regulating tumor metastasis, drug resistance, and immune modulation in the context of cancer development. Finally, we discuss prospects and challenges for the clinical development of exosome-based liquid biopsies and therapeutics.

/pdf/isolation-and-characterization-of-exosomes-for-cancer-10xmtfh8oe.pdf

Isolation and characterization of exosomes for cancer research.

Altered metabolism and deregulated cellular energetics are now considered a hallmark of all cancers. Glucose, glutamine, fatty acids, and amino acids are the primary drivers of tumor growth and act as substrates for the hexosamine biosynthetic pathway (HBP). The HBP culminates in the production of an amino sugar uridine diphosphate N-acetylglucosamine (UDP-GlcNAc) that, along with other charged nucleotide sugars, serves as the basis for biosynthesis of glycoproteins and other glycoconjugates. These nutrient-driven post-translational modifications are highly altered in cancer and regulate protein functions in various cancer-associated processes. In this review, we discuss recent progress in understanding the mechanistic relationship between the HBP and cancer.

/pdf/fueling-the-fire-emerging-role-of-the-hexosamine-m97snse8ly.pdf

Fueling the fire: emerging role of the hexosamine biosynthetic pathway in cancer

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC, also called primary liver cancer) is one of the most fatal cancers in the world. Due to the insidiousness of the onset of HCC and the lack of effective treatment methods, the prognosis of HCC is extremely poor, and the 5-year average survival rate is less than 10%. Exosomes are nano-sized microvesicle and contain various components such as nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids. Exosomes are important carriers for signal transmission or transportation of material from cell to cell or between cells and tissues. In recent years, exosomes have been considered as potential therapeutic targets of HCC. A large number of reports indicate that exosomes play a key role in the establishment of an HCC microenvironment, as well as the development, progression, invasion, metastasis, and even the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of HCC. However, the exact molecular mechanisms and roles of exosomes in these processes remain unclear. We believe that elucidation of the regulatory mechanism of HCC-related exosomes and its signaling pathway and analysis of its clinical applications in the diagnosis and treatment of HCC can provide useful clues for future treatment regimens for HCC. This article discusses and summarizes the research progress of HCC-related exosomes and their potential clinical applications.

/pdf/tumorigenesis-diagnosis-and-therapeutic-potential-of-12jojajf6h.pdf

Tumorigenesis, diagnosis, and therapeutic potential of exosomes in liver cancer

Intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) is a common disease that increases with age, and its occurrence is stressful both psychologically and financially. Stem cell therapy for IDD is emerging. For this therapy, stem cells from different sources have been proven in vitro, in vivo, and in clinical trials to relieve pain and symptoms, reverse the degeneration cascade, delay the aging process, maintain the spine shape, and retain mechanical function. However, further research is needed to explain how stem cells play these roles and what effects they produce in IDD treatment. This review aims to summarize and objectively analyse the current evidence on stem cell therapy for IDD. 

/pdf/application-of-stem-cells-in-the-repair-of-intervertebral-2b50gll1.pdf

Application of stem cells in the repair of intervertebral disc degeneration

Synergistic inhibition of cell migration by tetraspanin CD82 and gangliosides occurs via the EGFR or cMet-activated Pl3K/Akt signalling pathway

Stem cells receive cues from their physical and mechanical microenvironment via mechanosensing and mechanotransduction. These cues affect proliferation, self‑renewal and differentiation into specific cell fates. A growing body of evidence suggests that yes‑associated protein (YAP) and transcriptional coactivator with PDZ‑binding motif (TAZ) mechanotransduction is key for driving stem cell behavior and regeneration via the Hippo and other signaling pathways. YAP/TAZ receive a range of physical cues, including extracellular matrix stiffness, cell geometry, flow shear stress and mechanical forces in the cytoskeleton, and translate them into cell‑specific transcriptional programs. However, the mechanism by which mechanical signals regulate YAP/TAZ activity in stem cells is not fully understand. The present review summarizes the current knowledge of the mechanisms involved in YAP/TAZ regulation on the physical and mechanical microenvironment, as well as its potential effects on stem cell differentiation.

/pdf/regulation-and-mechanism-of-yap-taz-in-the-mechanical-2czhi8tx9p.pdf

Regulation and mechanism of YAP/TAZ in the mechanical microenvironment of stem cells (Review).

Ganglioside GM3 plays a well-documented and important role in the regulation of tumor cell proliferation, invasion, and metastasis by modulating tyrosine kinase growth factor receptors. However, the effect of GM3 on the hepatocyte growth factor receptor (HGFR, cMet) has not been fully delineated. In the current study, we investigated how GM3 affects cMet signaling and HGF-stimulated cell motility and migration using three hepatic cancer cell lines of mouse (Hca/A2, Hca/16A3, and Hepa1-6). Decreasing GM3 expression with the use of P4, a specific inhibitor for ganglioside synthesis inhibited the HGF-stimulated phosphorylation of cMet and activity of PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. In contrast, the increased expression of GM3 as a result of adding exogenous GM3 enhanced the HGF-stimulated phosphorylation of cMet and activity of PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Furthermore, HGF-stimulated cell motility and migration in vitro were inhibited by reduced expression of GM3 and enhanced by increased expression of GM3. All the observations indicate that ganglioside GM3 promotes HGF-stimulated motility of murine hepatoma cell through enhanced phosphorylation of cMet at specific tyrosine sites and PI3K/Akt-mediated migration signaling.

Ganglioside GM3 promotes HGF-stimulated motility of murine hepatoma cell through enhanced phosphorylation of cMet at specific tyrosine sites and PI3K/Akt-mediated migration signaling.

Prostate cancer (PCa) causes significant mortality and morbidity, with advanced metastasis. WNT signaling is a promising therapeutic target for metastatic PCa. GIPC2 is a GIPC1 paralog involved in WNT signaling pathways associated with tumor progression, but its role in PCa metastasis remains unclear. Herein, we demonstrated that high GIPC2 expression in PCa tissues was significantly associated with distant metastasis and poor prognosis. Functional studies demonstrated that high GIPC2 expression due to CpG-island demethylation promoted increased metastatic capabilities of PCa cells. Conversely, silencing GIPC2 expression significantly inhibited PCa metastasis in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, GIPC2 directly bound the WNT co-receptor Fzd7 through its PDZ domain, which enabled activation of WNT-β-catenin cascades, thereby stimulating PCa metastasis. Interestingly, GIPC2 protein was also identified as a component of exosomes and that it robustly stimulated PCa adhesion, invasion, and migration. The presence of GIPC2 in tumor-derived exosomes and ability to impact the behavior of tumor cells suggest that GIPC2 is a novel epigenetic oncogene involved in PCa metastasis. Our findings identified GIPC2 as a novel exosomal molecule associated with WNT signaling and may represent a potential therapeutic target and biomarker for metastatic PCa. 

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41388-022-02255-4.pdf

GIPC2 interacts with Fzd7 to promote prostate cancer metastasis by activating WNT signaling

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