Abstract The deficit irrigation offers water savings potential that is becoming popular in arid and semi-arid regions reducing freshwater use over time. A two-year factorial experiment was conducted to evaluate growth, yield and water productivity of tomato under water deficit irrigation of the drip and furrow method. The experiment was carried out in a split-plot design with drip irrigation and furrow irrigation as main plot treatments, and soil moisture regimes (0, -10, -20, -30 kPa) as subplots. Data were collected on growth parameters, physiological traits, yield and water productivity of tomato. The results showed that physiological traits, yield, and water productivity were significantly influenced by irrigation system and soil moisture regime. The drip irrigation system with -10 kPa soil moisture regime reduced total water input by 22.6% and 19.8% and gave 28% and 22% higher fruit yields in 2020 and 2021, respectively, compared with furrow irrigation system. Plant growth was higher and flowering occurred earlier (3 days) with drip irrigation system than with furrow irrigation. When the soil water content was -10 kPa, drip irrigation performed significantly better than for other soil moisture regimes by improving physiological and phenological attributes, and thereby, advancing tomato growth and fruit yield. Thus, a drip irrigation system with soil moisture regime -10 kPa could reduce total water input through precise irrigation, maximizing tomato yield and water productivity. 

/pdf/growth-yield-and-water-productivity-of-tomato-as-influenced-2mr2wdoa.pdf

Growth, Yield and Water Productivity of Tomato as Influenced by Deficit Irrigation Water Management

The transfer characterization of greenhouse gas from agricultural sources in the food trade is important to ensure food security and mitigate climate change. In this study, a spatial equilibrium model was established to simulate the trade flow patterns of grains and meat in China from 2000 to 2020 and the greenhouse gas from agricultural sources implied therein. This identified coupling relationship between production and greenhouse gas emissions. The results showed that the separation of supply and demand in food trade led to greenhouse gas transfers and flows that were similar to the food trade pattern. The total greenhouse gas transfer from grains decreased. However, that from meat increased from 13.91 Mt CO2-eq to 41.89 Mt CO2-eq, while the cross-regional transfer share increased from 47.86% to 59.16%. This study provides a benchmark for the better formulation of policies for zonal greenhouse gas reduction from agricultural sources. 

Measurement and spatio-temporal transfer of greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural sources in China: A food trade perspective

Exploring the coupling characteristics of regional water resources and food security helps to promote the sustainable development of grain production and is of great significance for achieving global food security. From the aspects of regional “water supply”, “water use” and “water demand”, the coupling characteristics of water resources and food security were systematically revealed; the new challenges faced by regional food security from the perspective of water resources were clarified; and effective ways to promote the utilization of regional water resources and the sustainable development of grain production were explored. This paper took Northwest China, which is the most arid region, where water-resource utilization and food security are in contradiction, as the research area. The water-resource load index, the water footprint of grain production and the water-consumption footprint were used to quantify the regional water-resource pressure index, as well as the residential grain-consumption types, population urbanization, the industrial-grain-processing industry and their corresponding water-consumption footprints from 2000 to 2020. The coupling characteristics of water resources and food security were systematically revealed. The results showed the following: (1) In 2000–2020, the water-resource load index increased from 4.0 to 10.7, and the load level increased from III to I. At the same time, agricultural water resources were largely allocated elsewhere. (2) During the period, the food rations showed a significant decreasing trend, and the average annual reduction was 3.4% (p < 0.01). The water footprint of animal products increased, particularly for beef and poultry (the average annual growth rates were 9.9% and 6.3%, respectively). In addition, the water footprint of industrial food consumption increased by 297.1%. (3) With the improvement of the urbanization level, the water-consumption footprint increased by 85.9%. It is expected that the water footprint of grain consumption will increase by 39.4% and 52.3% by 2030 and 2040, respectively. Exploring how to take effective measures to reduce the water footprint to meet food-security needs is imperative. This study proposed measures to improve the utilization efficiency of blue and green water and reduce gray water and the grain-consumption water footprint from the aspects of regional planting-structure optimization potential, water-saving irrigation technology, dietary-structure transformation and virtual water trade; these measures could better relieve the water-resource pressure and promote the sustainable development of grain production and water-resource utilization.

/pdf/analysis-of-the-coupling-characteristics-of-water-resources-11trqf3o.pdf

Analysis of the Coupling Characteristics of Water Resources and Food Security: The Case of Northwest China

The increasing domestic grain trade is prompting the regional transmission of agricultural virtual water in China. Understanding the factors driving this flow is important for mitigating the agricultural water footprint (AWF). Nevertheless, comprehending the water flow within China's agricultural industry and spatial relationship between driving factors and the flow has been lacking. This study employs the multiregional input-output (MRIO) method and geographical detector to examine China's interprovincial AWF and the influencing factors in 2012, 2015 and 2017. The results indicate a decrease in China's AWF from 390.27 billion m3 in 2012 to 376.62 billion m3 in 2017, with an increasing proportion involved in provincial transfer. The spatial pattern of AWF is generally high in the north of China, with Xinjiang and Heilongjiang as the largest AWF provinces over the three years. The average intensity of AWF (AWFI) decreased from 107.44 m3/thousand yuan in 2012 to and 81.25 m3/thousand yuan in 2017, which indicating an improve of agricultural efficiency in terms of water use per agricultural output. Over 42 % of China's AWF is transferred between regions, highlighting the significance of remote interactions in terms of agricultural virtual water. However, the agricultural water flow pattern lacks rationality, primarily moving from water-deficient areas to water-rich areas. Factors representing regional agricultural development determine the distribution of AWF and the outflow, while the social and economic factors significantly influence AWFI and the virtual water inflow. Based on the results, suggestions for reducing AWF and optimizing water flow were proposed from both producers' and consumers' perspectives. Producers are advised to decreased chemical fertilizers usage, promote efficient irrigation technologies, and optimize planting structures, while consumers should adjust dietary patterns to reduce water-intensive consumption, raise awareness about the water-saving consumption, and establish ecological compensation standards based on AWF. 

Interprovincial agricultural water footprint in China: Spatial pattern, driving forces and implications for water resource management

The increasing inter-provincial trade is prompting the regional transmission of agricultural carbon footprint (ACF) in China. Understanding the factors driving this phenomenon is crucial for mitigating the carbon footprint of agricultural production. Nevertheless, comprehending the carbon flow of the agricultural industry within China remained insufficient. Furthermore, quantifying the driving forces behind ACF and carbon flow for a single year posed a significant challenge. In this study, we aim to uncover the distribution and flow pattern of the carbon footprint in China's agricultural industry using a multi-regional input-output model. Moreover, we introduce a novel approach by employing geographical detectors to analyze the influencing factors from a spatial heterogeneity perspective. The results reveal that China's ACF in 2015 amounted to 48,826.69 thousand tons of carbon equivalents (CO2eq). The ACF was generally higher in the northern regions and lower in the central areas. A Jevons paradox phenomenon was observed in Shandong, where ACF was higher, and agricultural carbon emission intensity was lower, suggesting that improvements in agricultural efficiency can paradoxically lead to increased carbon emissions. Notably, 39.39% of ACF was involved in regional transfers. The primary flow of agricultural carbon occurred from northern to southeastern coastal areas, with Guangdong (4447.49 thousand tons of CO2eq) and Heilongjiang (−2225.25 thousand tons of CO2eq) being the leading inflow and outflow provinces, respectively. Socioeconomic and agricultural factors played a significant role in shaping the distribution of ACF and its inter-regional transmission. Socioeconomic factors, including GDP, population, industry structure, and educational expenditure, predominantly influenced inflow ACF. Meanwhile, agricultural factors related to land use and grain output primarily affected outflow ACF. Suggestions for reducing carbon footprint in the agricultural sector was proposed based on the condition of ACF and flow types, from the production and consumption aspects. Provinces of ACF inflow and outflow should share the responsibility for reducing ACF, potentially through carbon trading and reciprocal technological assistance. This study offers substantial theoretical value by providing a comprehensive understanding of the spatial flow and driving factors of ACF within China's agricultural sector. 

Inter-provincial flow and influencing factors of agricultural carbon footprint in China and its policy implication

Research on Crop Irrigation Schedules Under Deficit Irrigation—A Meta-analysis

Due to the impacts of climate change and human activities on scarcity and uneven spatial distribution of water resources, water use efficiency (WUE) has gained significant attention. Currently, there is a lack of research on estimating WUE with higher accuracy and stronger mechanism on the large regional scale. This study systematically reviewed the status and hotspots from an amount of studies and analyzed various concepts and estimation methods of WUE at different scales. Additionally, we discussed the limitations and challenges of these studies to point out the future opportunities. WUE at different scales could not be directly scale transferred as WUE varied at various scales. Recently, the remote sensing gross primary productivity (GPP) and evapotranspiration (ET) products, the remote sensing crop distribution recognition models, remote sensing ET and yield estimation models have improved the accuracy of WUE estimation at the regional scale, but lack of mechanical explanation. However, data assimilation provided a stronger mechanistic interpretation of WUE estimation at the regional scale by coupling remote sensing data and crop models. Optimized data assimilation method for coupling multi-source remote sensing fusion platform, unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) platform and crop model would be a better approach to quantify WUE of the large area in the future. It is also necessary to incorporate crop types and irrigation allocations into high spatial resolution crop-specific WUE modeling. Therefore, integrating multi-source remote sensing data, ensemble using multi-crop models, innovating near-real-time seamless efficient data assimilation algorithms at the regional scale, and refining multi-variables assimilation at different crop growth stages are the research hotspots in the future. This study will provide useful guidance for optimizing water resource management in precision agriculture and improving the efficient utilization of water resources. 

Status of crop water use efficiency evaluation methods: A review

Agriculture is not only the basic guarantee for human survival, but also the basis for the economy development and ecology construction. Water use and carbon emissions in grain production will largely determine China's transition to "green". On the basis of finding out how much water is consumed and how much carbon is emitted by grain cultivation, and then finding out whether and what extent water use and carbon emissions affect economic-ecological development in China. This study uses the Tapio decoupling model to calculate the decoupling status of the grain water‑carbon footprint and economic-ecological development in mainland China from 1998 to 2020. Then the Logarithmic Mean Division Index (LMDI) model is used to analyze the drivers of the change of water-economy decoupling status. The results show that the grain water‑carbon footprint is well decoupled from economic development, most decoupling states are absolute decoupling (−3<e<0) and relative decoupling ① (0<e<1). The grain water‑carbon footprint decoupled from ecological development is weak, and the decoupling coefficient has significant spatio-temporal differences. The agricultural production technology is the main positive driver for the decoupling between grain water footprint and economic development in mainland China (−1<eB<0). And the economic development scale is the main restraining factor for the decoupling between grain water footprint and economic development (0<eC<1). All provinces in mainland China need to correctly handle the relationship between economy-ecology development and grain security, and take water conservation and carbon emission reduction as an important starting point for adjusting the industrial structure, so as to achieve "green" development. The grain water‑carbon footprint was calculated in an integrated manner, and then based on the calculation of the decoupling situation, the drivers of the decoupling situation were further assessed. 

Decoupling trend and drivers between grain water‑carbon footprint and economy-ecology development in China

Water-Food-Carbon Nexus from Producer-Consumer Link: A Review.

As the world's largest grain producer, China's activities in virtual water trade for grain are particularly noteworthy. The imbalance of grain production and consumption among regions poses challenges to agricultural development and the sustainable use of water resources. Most of the previous research focused on the driving analysis of factors affecting agricultural water use at the production end. It is necessary to further explore the driving factors of virtual water flow (VWF) caused by grain trade on the consumption side, and consider the impact of production and consumption on the entire process of agricultural water use. This study combines the Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index (LMDI) index decomposition method and multiple regression model to analyze the main natural and social driving factors of VWF. The study also initiates the construction of an analytical framework for the dynamic interaction of coupled social hydrology and Metacoupling systems. The results indicate that economic growth is the primary driver behind the increase in VWF. The water intensity effect and industrial structure effect act as constraints on VWF. Notably, water intensity has the most significant negative effect, with contributions of − 118.9 Gm³ and − 192.4 Gm³ to the virtual water output and input areas, respectively. Conversely, the economic, demographic, and dependence effect play a promoting role. Among these, the positive economic effect far exceeds population and dependence effects, contributing 189.7 Gm³ and 231.3 Gm³ to the virtual water output and input areas, respectively. The analytical framework of coupled social hydrology and the dynamic interaction of Metacoupling systems reveals that VWF couples water resources with multiple systems through the production-consumption-pollution chain. Simultaneously, it achieves long-distance interactions across spaces through cross-space VWF, exhibiting socio-hydrological interactions. The input area displays a forward cycle, while the output area exhibits the opposite. These findings can serve as a theoretical reference for controlling grain VWF. 

Socio-hydrology pathway of grain virtual water flow in China

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