This study presents petrochemical and boron isotope compositions of tourmalines from the fertile (No. 3) and barren (No. 1, 2b) pegmatite in the Koktokay pegmatitic rare-metal deposit, to better understand the influence of external contamination on pegmatite mineralization and the source of these pegmatites. There are four types of tourmalines that have been studied: (1) tourmaline in the tourmaline-mica nest of pegmatite No. 1 (Tur-N); (2) tourmalines in the comb-like structure of pegmatite No. 1 (Tur-C1), 2b (Tur-C2), and 3 (Tur-C3), respectively. Tur-N tourmaline is heterogeneous in backscattered electron (BSE) images, Tur-C1 and Tur-C2 appear to be homogenous crystals, while Tur-C3 exhibits to have a complicated zonal structure. These tourmalines are members of the alkali group tourmalines representing mostly dravite-schorl solid solutions. Tur-N contains the lowest Ca content. There is a general increase in the contents of Mg and Ca from Tur-C1 to Tur-C3, implying that the pegmatite melt was contaminated by the host rock (metagabbro) during the emplacement. The contamination's diffusive influx of Mg, Ca, and Fe components into the pegmatite melt impelled the crystallization of tourmaline during the emplacement, which subsequently triggered the deposition of rare element minerals. The external contamination implies that the closed system of melt is extremely favorable for the enrichment and mineralization of rare elements in the pegmatitic rare-metal deposit. The boron isotopes vary slightly among the four types of tourmalines. The B-isotope composition of Tur-C3 is the heaviest (–11.63 ± 0.05 ‰ to –13.16 ± 0.05 ‰), followed by Tur-C1 (–12.29 ± 0.06 ‰ to –12.93 ± 0.05 ‰) and Tur-C2 (–12.51 ± 0.05 ‰ to –13.21 ± 0.05 ‰), Tur-N contains the lowest δ11B value (–13.20 ± 0.05 ‰ to –13.76 ± 0.05 ‰). Synthesized with the previous research results, we hold that the boron isotope of tourmaline (Tur-C3) in the comb-like structure of No. 3 pegmatite might represent the isotope composition of its initial magma, indicating that the pegmatite may derive from the anatexis of clastic sedimentary rock from the Habahe Group forming in Mid Ordovician to Early Devonian in the Chinese Altay orogenic belt. 

In-situ elemental and boron isotopic variations of tourmaline from the Koktokay pegmatitic rare-metal deposit, China: Insights into external contamination and the source of the granitic pegmatite

A dataset of >1190 published compositional analyses of muscovite from granitic pegmatites of varying mineralogical types was compiled to reevaluate the usefulness of K-Rb-Li systematics of muscovite as a tool for distinguishing mineralogically simple pegmatites from pegmatites with potential Li mineralization. Muscovite from (i) common, (ii) (Be-Nb-Ta-P)-enriched, (iii) Li-enriched, and (iv) REE- to F-enriched pegmatites contain Li contents that vary between 10 and 20,000 ppm depending on the degree of pegmatite fractionation. Common pegmatites are characterized by low degrees of fractionation as exhibited by K/Rb ratios ranging from 618 and 25 and Li contents generally being <200 ppm but infrequently as high as 743 ppm in muscovite. Moderately fractionated pegmatites with Be, Nb, Ta, and P enrichment contain muscovite having K/Rb ratios mostly between 45 and 7 plus Li contents between 5 to >1700 ppm. Muscovite from moderately to highly fractionated Li-rich pegmatites exhibit a wide range of K/Rb ratios and Li values: (i) K/Rb = 84 to 1.4 and Li = 35 to >18,100 ppm for spodumene pegmatites, (ii) K/Rb = 139 to 2 and Li = 139 to >18,500 ppm for petalite pegmatites, and (iii) K/Rb = 55 to 1.5 and Li = 743 to >17,800 ppm for lepidolite pegmatites. Pegmatites that host substantial REE- and F-rich minerals may carry muscovite with K/Rb ratios between 691 to 4 that has Li contents between 19 to 15,690 ppm. The K/Rb-Li behavior of muscovite can be useful in assessing the potential for Li mineralization in certain granitic pegmatite types. The proposed limits of K/Rb values and Li concentrations for identifying spodumene- or petalite-bearing pegmatites as part of an exploration program is reliable for Group 1 (LCT) pegmatite populations derived from S-type parental granites or anatectic melting of peraluminous metasedimentary rocks. However, it is not recommended for application to Group 2 (NYF) pegmatites affiliated with anorogenic to post-orogenic granitoids with A-type geochemical signatures or that derived by the anatexis of mafic rocks that generated REE- and F-rich melts.

Reevaluation of the K/Rb-Li Systematics in Muscovite as a Potential Exploration Tool for Identifying Li Mineralization in Granitic Pegmatites

Lithium (Li) can be found in many minerals, including lepidolite. Lepidolite is found in pegmatite-related tin deposits in the Phang Nga area in southern Thailand. According to their field occurrence, petrography, mineral chemistry, and whole-rock geochemistry, the Li-bearing pegmatites and the granitic rocks in the study area can be linked to tin deposits in southern Thailand as part of the SE Asian tin belt. The Li-bearing pegmatites are characterized by an abundance of lepidolite, K-feldspar, plagioclase, and quartz with some accessory minerals of fluorite, cassiterite, apatite, monazite, and beryl. The granitic rocks show various compositions, including porphyritic biotite–muscovite granite, biotite granite, and muscovite—tourmaline granite with different proportions of K-feldspar, plagioclase, quartz, biotite, muscovite, and tourmaline. Whole-rock geochemistry indicates that both the Li-bearing pegmatites and granitic rocks have a close relationship rooted in their peraluminous S-type granite affinity. The Li-bearing pegmatites evolved from highly fractionated S-type granitic rocks comparable with the Western Belt Granite of Thailand. The enrichment of large-ion lithophile elements (e.g., Rb and K) and the depletion of Ba, Nb, and Ti together with similar rare Earth element patterns reflect the collisional setting indicating the Sibumasu–West Burma and West Burma—Indo-Burma collisions during the Cretaceous to the Eocene. The crystallization pressure—temperature conditions of these rocks were 3.49–4.25 kbar and 622°C–675°C, respectively, with an emplacement depth of 13–15 km. The Li-bearing pegmatites had a relatively high average Li grade compared with those of other Li-bearing pegmatites in the world.

/pdf/petrology-and-geochemistry-of-li-bearing-pegmatites-and-3i14oev0.pdf

Petrology and geochemistry of Li-bearing pegmatites and related granitic rocks in southern Thailand: implications for petrogenesis and lithium potential in Thailand

The metallogenesis of Li-rich pegmatites remains contentious and an innovative approach for exploring such deposits is needed. The well-known Koktokay pegmatites in the Altay Orogenic Belt exhibit various mineralization degrees and patterns. In this study, we conducted systematic elemental and boron isotope analyses on five tourmaline samples to decipher the metallogenic mechanism and prospecting indicators of rare metal pegmatites. KKTH2 and KKTH3 were collected directly from the magmatic stage and magmatic–hydrothermal stage of the No. 3 pegmatite, KKTH1 was collected from the Aikoz mine pit, and KKTH4 and KKTH5 were collected from a small operational mine near the No. 3 pegmatite. Unlike the No. 3 pegmatite, this mine produces gem crystals but lacks Li mineralization. All tourmalines belong to the alkali group, whereby KKTH1 and KKTH2 are classified as fluor-elbaite, whereas KKTH3 and KKTH4 are schorl. The tourmaline in KKTH5 shows high Al content (up to 45.30 wt%), classifying as mostly rossmanite–elbaite series, with minor amounts of olenite and liddicoatite. A Rayleigh fractionation model at 500–650 °C temperatures yields a shift in △11B value of 4.8 ‰ between Zone IV and VI involved more than just magma, as B-isotope fractionation between tourmaline and melt would be <1 ‰. It further indicates that different parts of No. 3 pegmatite may have originated from diverse sources. After comparing the δ11B values of tourmaline in this study with other fertile and barren pegmatite globally, we suggest that δ11B values of tourmaline higher than −10 ‰ is a potentially useful indicator for Li-rich pegmatites because of the likely relationship with marine evaporite or carbonate rocks in the source. Furthermore, we propose that tourmaline with a V/Sc value lower than 1 and a Li/Sr value higher than 100 can be used as indicators for Li exploration. The extent of Li migration from magma into the hydrothermal stage and mineralized in the residual melt correlates with the salinity of magma, which may reasonably explain the less intense wallrock alteration near the No.3 pegmatite. This finding provides new insight into the use of trace elements and boron isotope composition as a guide for exploring Li-rich pegmatites. 

Chemical and boron isotope composition of tourmaline from Koktokay pegmatite, Altay Orogenic Belt, Northwest China: Implications for metallogenic mechanism and prospecting indicator for rare-metal pegmatites

Owing to tectonic, magmatic, and metamorphic controls, pegmatites associated with different spatiotemporal distributions exhibit varying mineralisation characteristics. The petrogenesis of pegmatites containing rare metals can improve the understanding of geodynamic processes in the deep subsurface. In order to understand the difference of petrogenesis between Devonian and Permian pegmatites, zircon U-Pb geochronological and Hf-O isotope analyses were performed on samples of the Jiamanhaba, Amulagong, and Tiemulete pegmatites from the Chinese Altay. According to the results obtained, the Amulagong and Tiemulete pegmatites were formed during the Devonian, and samples that were analysed yielded zircon U-Pb ages of 373.0 ± 7.8 and 360 ± 5.2 Ma, respectively. Samples from these pegmatites produced εHf(t) values of 2.87–7.39, two-stage model ages of 900–1171 Ma and δ18O values of 9.55‰–15.86‰. These results suggest that the pegmatites were formed via an anatexis of mature sedimentary rocks deep in the crust. In contrast, the Jiamanhaba pegmatite was formed during the Permian, and its samples produced εHf(t) and δ18O values of 2.87–4.94 and 6.05‰–7.32‰, respectively, which indicate that the associated magma contained minor amounts of mantle/juvenile materials. The petrogenesis of pegmatites containing rare metals can reveal tectonic settings of their formation. A combination of data that were generated in the present study and existing geochronological and Hf-O isotope data for felsic igneous and sedimentary rocks in the Chinese Altay shows that the εHf(t) sharply increased while the δ18O suddenly decreased between Late Carboniferous and Early Permian. These changes highlight a tectonic transformation event during this critical period. This tectonic event promoted mantle–crustal interactions, and thus, it was probably linked to assemblages of the Altay orogen and the Junggar Block. The present study provides evidence that the Irtysh–Zaisan Ocean probably closed during the Late Carboniferous (~300 Ma). 

Petrogenesis of Devonian and Permian Pegmatites in the Chinese Altay: Insights into the Closure of the Irtysh–Zaisan Ocean

Populus euphratica is a typical stress-resistant tree species that provides valuable natural genetic resources for breeding salt-tolerant plants. The calcineurin B-like (CBL)-interacting protein kinase (CIPK) network plays an important role in regulating plant responses to abiotic stresses. The aim of this study was to characterize the function of a new CBL member, PeCBL4, in response to abiotic stresses. PeCBL4 was cloned, and sequence analysis was performed. The subcellular localization of PeCBL4 was determined using the fusion expression vector of GFP. Yeast two-hybrid assays and bimolecular fluorescence complementation were performed to identify PeCIPK members that interacted with PeCBL4. PeCBL4 was then transformed into the corresponding Arabidopsis thaliana mutants. Na+ and K+ content as well as their net fluxes were determined under high salt stress and low K+ stress. Phylogenetic tree analysis showed that PeCBL4 was clustered together with PtCBL4 and belonged to the same subgroup as AtCBL4. Subcellular localization indicated that PeCBL4 was expressed on the plasma membrane. Yeast two-hybrid assays and bimolecular fluorescence complementation showed that PeCBL4 interacted with PeCIPK24 and PeCIPK26. In addition, under high salt stress, the Na+ efflux capacities of seedlings decreased in sos3 mutants, and transgenic plants of PeCBL4 enhanced efflux capacities. In addition, the overexpression of PeCBL4 negatively influenced the influx capacity of K+. PeCBL4 interacts with PeCIPK24 and PeCIPK26 and regulates Na+/K+ balance under low K+ and high salt stress. 

Functional Characterization of a New Salt Stress Response Gene, PeCBL4, in Populus euphratica Oliv

Understanding the petrogenesis of rare‐metal pegmatites is important for understanding ore‐forming processes and their tectonic settings. In this study, we performed zircon U–Pb geochronological and Hf–O isotopic analyses of the Xiaokalasu, Dakalasu, and Yelaman pegmatites in the Chinese Altay orogen. These pegmatites have low εHf(t) values (−0.6 ~ +4.3), two‐stage model ages of 989 ~ 1,293 Ma, and high δ18O values (+6.52 ~ +11.31), indicating that they may have been derived from the anatexis of mature sedimentary rocks in the deep crust, with a small amount of mantle‐derived or juvenile material. Geochronological and Hf–O isotopic data for granitic intrusions in the Chinese Altay Mountains indicate that the εHf(t) values decreased from the Permian to the Triassic, which implies that two‐stage post‐collisional magmatism occurred in this region. During the Permian, the thin lower crust was cold; thus, magmatism likely originated in the deep crust close to the Moho surface and involved intense mantle–crust interactions. During the Triassic, asthenospheric upwelling provided heat to the lower crust, which increased the geothermal gradient and led to the anatexis of shallow crustal material.

Petrogenetic studies of Permian pegmatites in the Chinese Altay: Implications for a two‐stage post‐collisional magmatism model

Corrigendum to “Lithium mineralization during evolution of a magmatic–hydrothermal system: Mineralogical evidence from Li-mineralized pegmatites in Altai, NW China” [Ore Geol. Rev. 149 (2022) 105058]

Lithium mineralization during evolution of a magmatic–hydrothermal system: Mineralogical evidence from Li-mineralized pegmatites in Altai, NW China

Lithium partitioning between aqueous fluids and granitic melt and implications for ore genesis of pegmatite-type Li deposits

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