Quantum dot-sensitized solar cells (QDSCs) have emerged as a promising candidate for next-generation solar cells due to the distinct optoelectronic features of quantum dot (QD) light-harvesting materials, such as high light, thermal, and moisture stability, facilely tunable absorption range, high absorption coefficient, multiple exciton generation possibility, and solution processability as well as their facile fabrication and low-cost availability. In recent years, we have witnessed a dramatic boost in the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of QDSCs from 5% to nearly 13%, which is comparable to other kinds of emerging solar cells. Both the exploration of new QD light-harvesting materials and interface engineering have contributed to this fantastically fast improvement. The outstanding development trend of QDSCs indicates their great potential as a promising candidate for next-generation photovoltaic cells. In this review article, we present a comprehensive overview of the development of QDSCs, including: (1) the fundamental principles, (2) a history of the brief evolution of QDSCs, (3) the key materials in QDSCs, (4) recombination control, and (5) stability issues. Finally, some directions that can further promote the development of QDSCs in the future are proposed to help readers grasp the challenges and opportunities for obtaining high-efficiency QDSCs.

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Quantum dot-sensitized solar cells

The general flammability of polymer materials is a crucial problem to be solved in industrial applications. Polyphosphazenes, a kind organic-inorganic polymer and whose main chain is alternating by single and double bonds of phosphorus, nitrogen are endowed with excellent natural flame retardant synergies and thermal stability. Therefore, utilizing the designability of molecular structure and excellent flame retardant performance of polyphosphazene, a series of polyphosphazene flame retardants based on linear and cyclocrosslinked structures have been synthesized to improve the comprehensive properties especially the flame retardant properties, thermal stability and mechanical properties of materials, which is reviewed here. In particular, the molecular structure design and morphological changes of polyphosphazenes, flame retardant mechanism and the performance of flame retardant materials have been systematically discussed. As an important member of environmentally friendly halogen-free flame retardants, the challenges and opportunities encountered by polyphosphazene flame retardant materials have also been proposed in this review. In view of the excellent physical and chemical properties of polyphosphazenes, it's believed that an increasingly important role would be played by polyphosphazenes not only in flame retardant application but also in other application fields such as biomedicine and environmental adsorption.

Polyphosphazenes-based flame retardants: A review

The increasing energy demands and global population together with concerns over global warming are driving the search and development of clean and renewable energy sources such as solar cells, fuel cells, batteries, and supercapacitors; in the last few decades, quantum dot-sensitized solar cells (QDSCs) have attracted significant interest because of their perceived benefits over some alternative solar cells in terms of high light, thermal, and moisture stability; tunable absorption range; high absorption coefficient; multiple exciton generation possibility; solution processability, as well as their facile fabrication and low-cost availability. Compared to molecular dyes, quantum dots (QDs) have several advantages, which have exhibited higher molar extinction coefficients and a tunable photoresponse, resulting in a dramatic increase in the power conversion efficiency (PCE) from 5% to 13%. This review article presents a comprehensive overview of the development of QDSCs, including the photoanodes, sensitizers, electrolytes, and counter electrodes (CEs), and discusses future prospects for the development of highly efficient and stable QDSCs.

Recent progress in quantum dot sensitized solar cells: an inclusive review of photoanode, sensitizer, electrolyte, and the counter electrode

Development of new low-cost technologies for high-efficiency quantum dot-sensitized solar cells (QDSCs) is an effective way to solve current energy and environmental problems. Over the past few years QDSCs employing inorganic semiconductor nanocrystals as the light harvesters, introduced in 2010 with a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 5%, have attracted much attention since the recent breakthrough PCE reports of over 12%. In this review, the strategies to obtain highly efficient QDSCs are discussed in detail from the viewpoints of QD sensitizers, properties of photoanode films, counter electrodes, redox electrolytes, and the interfacial passivation method. Furthermore, the limitations and further prospects are also discussed of how to fabricate QDSC devices with high efficiency and excellent stability. It is expected that these goals can be realized by virtue of the above effective strategies. We believe that this review will not only offer a theoretical basis and technical support for further industrial application of QDSCs, but also provide inspiration and references for performance improvement of other types of solar cells.

Performance improvement strategies for quantum dot-sensitized solar cells: a review

Porous poly(ionic liquid)s (PPILs) combine the features of porous materials, polymers, and ionic liquids (ILs) or their derivatives, but they are normally of amorphous structure with disordered pores. Here, we report the facile synthesis of ordered porous poly(ionic liquid) crystallines (OPICs, specialized as a kind of PPIL analogues) with diverse and adjustable framework IL moieties through the Schiff base condensation of IL-derived ionic salts and neutral monomers. Ternary monomer mixtures are employed to artistically control the chemical composition and pore configurations. Compact atomic packing was achieved to give spacing confined ionic surface with strong CO2 affinity. Through monomer control, OPICs exhibit high CO2 uptakes with excellent CO2/N2(CH4) selectivities and efficiently implement CO2 fixation through catalyzing epoxides cycloaddition under down to ambient conditions.

Ordered Porous Poly(ionic liquid) Crystallines: Spacing Confined Ionic Surface Enhancing Selective CO2 Capture and Fixation.

A novel solid-state electrolyte based on 1,3-dihexylbenzimidazolium ([DHexBIm]) cations combined with Br−, BF4− or SCN− anions is used in CdS/CdSe sensitized quantum dot sensitized solar cells (QDSSCs). A power conversion efficiency of 4.26% was achieved with a fill factor of 56.44% using the [DHexBIm][SCN]-based electrolyte. X-ray powder diffraction analysis reveals that [DHexBIm][SCN] is crystalline with a much higher symmetry than the other two salts. Differential scanning calorimetry and thermal gravimetric analysis of [DHexBIm][SCN] reveals a solid–solid phase transition at 50 °C together with a high thermal stability. Current density–voltage (J–V) tests, Tafel-polarization plots, cyclic voltammetry curves and electrochemical impedance spectroscopic methods were used to characterize QDSSCs and to probe the mechanism of device performance. These studies show that good ionic conductivity and a low RCE value lead to a good short-current density (Jsc) of 12.58 mA cm−2, which is the major effect factor for the high power conversion efficiency observed. In the stability test, this device shows excellent long-term stability, maintaining 67% of the initial efficiency after 504 h.

Benzimidazolium salt-based solid-state electrolytes afford efficient quantum-dot sensitized solar cells

We show that ionic liquids (ILs) interact with electron-rich, porous polyphosphazene (PPZ), to form hybrid PPZ-IL nanoreactors able to simultaneously capture and transform CO2 into carbonates. The PPZ nanospheres swell in organic solvents and effectively absorb IL cations by virtue of the electron-rich sites, while leaving the anions exposed and increasing their nucleophilicity. This leads to considerably higher catalytic activity compared to the IL alone in the cycloaddition reaction of CO2 to epoxides. The cation shielding effect is dependent on the structure of the IL cation and, hence, the catalytic activity can be tuned by varying the structure of the cation in the IL and DFT calculations were used to rationalize the experimentally observed differences in catalytic activity. These studies indicate that PPZ nanospheres could find widespread uses in catalysis, acting as active nanosupports for homogeneous catalysts, not only for the transformations of CO2, but also for other substrates.

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Ionic liquid containing electron-rich, porous polyphosphazene nanoreactors catalyze the transformation of CO2 to carbonates

Efficient Solid-State Electrolytes Based on Aryl-Modified Imidazolium Ionic Crystals for Quantum Dot-Sensitized Solar Cells

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Benzimidazolium salt-based solid-state electrolytes afford efficient quantum-dot sensitized solar cells

Ionic liquid containing electron-rich, porous polyphosphazene nanoreactors catalyze the transformation of CO2 to carbonates

Efficient Solid-State Electrolytes Based on Aryl-Modified Imidazolium Ionic Crystals for Quantum Dot-Sensitized Solar Cells