is one of the most recognizablecharacters in 20th century cinema. HAL is an artiﬁcial agent capable of such advancedlanguage behavior as speaking and understanding English, and at a crucial moment inthe plot, even reading lips. It is now clear that HAL’s creator, Arthur C. Clarke, wasa little optimistic in predicting when an artiﬁcial agent such as HAL would be avail-able. But just how far off was he? What would it take to create at least the language-relatedpartsofHAL?WecallprogramslikeHALthatconversewithhumansinnatural

/pdf/speech-and-language-processing-1xjlmt8snu.pdf

Speech and Language Processing

Word sense disambiguation (WSD) is the ability to identify the meaning of words in context in a computational manner. WSD is considered an AI-complete problem, that is, a task whose solution is at least as hard as the most difficult problems in artificial intelligence. We introduce the reader to the motivations for solving the ambiguity of words and provide a description of the task. We overview supervised, unsupervised, and knowledge-based approaches. The assessment of WSD systems is discussed in the context of the Senseval/Semeval campaigns, aiming at the objective evaluation of systems participating in several different disambiguation tasks. Finally, applications, open problems, and future directions are discussed.

/pdf/word-sense-disambiguation-a-survey-20csyn4stq.pdf

Word sense disambiguation: A survey

http://wwwusers.di.uniroma1.it/~navigli/pubs/AIJ_2012_Navigli_Ponzetto.pdf

BabelNet: The automatic construction, evaluation and application of a wide-coverage multilingual semantic network

We present a novel end-to-end neural model to extract entities and relations between them. Our recurrent neural network based model captures both word sequence and dependency tree substructure information by stacking bidirectional treestructured LSTM-RNNs on bidirectional sequential LSTM-RNNs. This allows our model to jointly represent both entities and relations with shared parameters in a single model. We further encourage detection of entities during training and use of entity information in relation extraction via entity pretraining and scheduled sampling. Our model improves over the stateof-the-art feature-based model on end-toend relation extraction, achieving 12.1% and 5.7% relative error reductions in F1score on ACE2005 and ACE2004, respectively. We also show that our LSTMRNN based model compares favorably to the state-of-the-art CNN based model (in F1-score) on nominal relation classification (SemEval-2010 Task 8). Finally, we present an extensive ablation analysis of several model components.

/pdf/end-to-end-relation-extraction-using-lstms-on-sequences-and-1gnqymkabm.pdf

End-to-End Relation Extraction using LSTMs on Sequences and Tree Structures

Entity Linking (EL) and Word Sense Disambiguation (WSD) both address the lexical ambiguity of language. But while the two tasks are pretty similar, they differ in a fundamental respect: in EL the textual mention can be linked to a named entity which may or may not contain the exact mention, while in WSD there is a perfect match between the word form (better, its lemma) and a suitable word sense. In this paper we present Babelfy, a unified graph-based approach to EL and WSD based on a loose identification of candidate meanings coupled with a densest subgraph heuristic which selects high-coherence semantic interpretations. Our experiments show state-of- the-art performances on both tasks on 6 different datasets, including a multilingual setting. Babelfy is online at http://babelfy.org

/pdf/entity-linking-meets-word-sense-disambiguation-a-unified-2zo57he615.pdf

Entity Linking meets Word Sense Disambiguation: A Unified Approach

Recent research presents conflicting evidence on whether word sense disambiguation (WSD) systems can help to improve the performance of statistical machine translation (MT) systems. In this paper, we successfully integrate a state-of-the-art WSD system into a state-of-the-art hierarchical phrase-based MT system, Hiero. We show for the first time that integrating a WSD system improves the performance of a state-ofthe-art statistical MT system on an actual translation task. Furthermore, the improvement is statistically significant.

/pdf/word-sense-disambiguation-improves-statistical-machine-55czvpff30.pdf

Word Sense Disambiguation Improves Statistical Machine Translation

In this paper, we observe that there exists a second dimension to the relation extraction (RE) problem that is orthogonal to the relation type dimension. We show that most of these second dimensional structures are relatively constrained and not difficult to identify. We propose a novel algorithmic approach to RE that starts by first identifying these structures and then, within these, identifying the semantic type of the relation. In the real RE problem where relation arguments need to be identified, exploiting these structures also allows reducing pipelined propagated errors. We show that this RE framework provides significant improvement in RE performance.

Exploiting Syntactico-Semantic Structures for Relation Extraction

This paper develops a minimally supervised approach, based on focused distributional similarity methods and discourse connectives, for identifying of causality relations between events in context. While it has been shown that distributional similarity can help identifying causality, we observe that discourse connectives and the particular discourse relation they evoke in context provide additional information towards determining causality between events. We show that combining discourse relation predictions and distributional similarity methods in a global inference procedure provides additional improvements towards determining event causality.

Minimally Supervised Event Causality Identification

A central problem of word sense disambiguation (WSD) is the lack of manually sense-tagged data required for supervised learning. In this paper, we evaluate an approach to automatically acquire sense-tagged training data from English-Chinese parallel corpora, which are then used for disambiguating the nouns in the SENSEVAL-2 English lexical sample task. Our investigation reveals that this method of acquiring sense-tagged data is promising. On a subset of the most difficult SENSEVAL-2 nouns, the accuracy difference between the two approaches is only 14.0%, and the difference could narrow further to 6.5% if we disregard the advantage that manually sense-tagged data have in their sense coverage. Our analysis also highlights the importance of the issue of domain dependence in evaluating WSD programs.

Exploiting Parallel Texts for Word Sense Disambiguation: An Empirical Study

When a word sense disambiguation (WSD) system is trained on one domain but applied to a different domain, a drop in accuracy is frequently observed. This highlights the importance of domain adaptation for word sense disambiguation. In this paper, we first show that an active learning approach can be successfully used to perform domain adaptation of WSD systems. Then, by using the predominant sense predicted by expectation-maximization (EM) and adopting a count-merging technique, we improve the effectiveness of the original adaptation process achieved by the basic active learning approach.

Domain Adaptation with Active Learning for Word Sense Disambiguation

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