In recent years, deep learning techniques revolutionized the way remote sensing data are processed. Classification of hyperspectral data is no exception to the rule, but has intrinsic specificities which make application of deep learning less straightforward than with other optical data. This article presents a state of the art of previous machine learning approaches, reviews the various deep learning approaches currently proposed for hyperspectral classification, and identifies the problems and difficulties which arise to implement deep neural networks for this task. In particular, the issues of spatial and spectral resolution, data volume, and transfer of models from multimedia images to hyperspectral data are addressed. Additionally, a comparative study of various families of network architectures is provided and a software toolbox is publicly released to allow experimenting with these methods. 1 This article is intended for both data scientists with interest in hyperspectral data and remote sensing experts eager to apply deep learning techniques to their own dataset.

pdf/deep-learning-for-classification-of-hyperspectral-data-a-acpeqbi6nd.pdf

Deep Learning for Classification of Hyperspectral Data: A Comparative Review

In recent years, deep-learning techniques revolutionized the way remote sensing data are processed. The classification of hyperspectral data is no exception to the rule, but it has intrinsic specificities that make the application of deep learning less straightforward than with other optical data. This article presents the state of the art of previous machine-learning approaches, reviews the various deeplearning approaches currently proposed for hyperspectral classification, and identifies the problems and difficulties that arise in the implementation of deep neural networks for this task. In particular, the issues of spatial and spectral resolution, data volume, and transfer of models from multimedia images to hyperspectral data are addressed. Additionally, a comparative study of various families of network architectures is provided, and a software toolbox is publicly released to allow experimenting with these methods (https://github.com/nshaud/DeepHyperX). This article is intended for both data scientists with interest in hyperspectral data and remote sensing experts eager to apply deeplearning techniques to their own data set.

https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02104998/document

The optimal exploitation of the information provided by hyperspectral images requires the development of advanced image processing tools Therefore, under the title Hyperspectral image representation and Processing with Binary Partition Trees, this PhD thesis proposes the construction and the processing of a new region-based hierarchical hyperspectral image representation: the Binary Partition Tree (BPT) This hierarchical region-based representation can be interpreted as a set of hierarchical regions stored in a tree structure Hence, the Binary Partition Tree succeeds in presenting: (i) the decomposition of the image in terms of coherent regions and (ii) the inclusion relations of the regions in the scene Based on region-merging techniques, the construction of BPT is investigated in this work by studying hyperspectral region models and the associated similarity metrics As a matter of fact, the very high dimensionality and the complexity of the data require the definition of specific region models and similarity measures Once the BPT is constructed, the fixed tree structure allows implementing efficient and advanced application-dependent techniques on it The application-dependent processing of BPT is generally implemented through a specific pruning of the tree Accordingly, some pruning techniques are proposed and discussed
according to different applications This PhD is focused in particular on segmentation, object detection and classification of hyperspectral imagery Experimental results on various hyperspectral data sets demonstrate the interest and the good performances of the BPT representation

Hyperspectral image representation and processing with binary partition trees

Paths of online users towards a purchase event (conversion) can be very complex, and guiding them through their journey is an integral part of online advertising. Studies in marketing indicate that a conversion event is typically preceded by one or more purchase funnel stages, viz., unaware, aware, interest, consideration, and intent. Intuitively, some online activities, including web searches, site visits and ad interactions, can serve as markers for the user's funnel stage. Identifying such markers can potentially refine conversion prediction, guide the design of ad creatives (text and images), and lead to higher ad effectiveness. We explore this hypothesis through a set of experiments designed for two tasks: (i) conversion prediction given a user's activity trail, and (ii) funnel stage specific targeting and creatives. To address challenges in the two tasks, we propose an attention based recurrent neural network (RNN) which ingests a user activity trail, and predicts the user's conversion probability along with attention weights for each activity (analogous to its position in the funnel). Specifically, we propose novel attention mechanisms, which maintain a global weight for each activity across all user trails, and also indicate the activity's funnel stage. Use of the proposed attention mechanisms for the first task of conversion prediction shows significant AUC lifts of 0.9% on a public dataset (RecSys 2015 challenge), and up to 3.6% on three proprietary datasets from a major advertising platform (Yahoo Gemini). To address the second task, the activity weights from the proposed mechanisms are used to automatically assign users to funnel stages via a scalable scoring method. Offline evaluation shows that such activity weights are more aligned with editorially tagged activity-funnel stages compared to weights from existing attention mechanisms and simpler conversion models like logistic regression. In addition, results of online ad campaigns in Yahoo Gemini with funnel specific user targeting and ad creatives show strong performance lifts further validating the connection across online activities, purchase funnel stages, stage-specific custom creatives, and conversions.

https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/3292500.3330753

Understanding Consumer Journey using Attention based Recurrent Neural Networks

The ability of supervised image analysis methods to provide state-of-the-art performance is limited by availability of high-quality labeled data in large quantities. Domain adaptation approaches propose a solution to this problem by leveraging quality labeled information from auxiliary data sources. In this work, we use adversarial learning for domain adaptation for remote sensing applications. First, we approached the problem of unavailable target domain labels with unsupervised domain adaptation and then extended our method for semisupervised domain adaptation to use a few available labels as well. We are using adversarial learning to extract discriminative target domain features that are aligned with source domain. We test our framework for two very different applications of remote sensing imagery, multiclass classification in hyperspectral images and semantic segmentation in large scale satellite images. For hyperspectral image analysis two datasets were used: the University of Houston shadow data was used for quantifying the efficacy of our approach to varying illumination, and the Botswana data was used to quantify the efficacy of our approach under multitemporal spectral shifts. Multisensor high-resolution images from National Agriculture Imagery Program and SpaceNet-Rio datasets were used as the source and target for the task of building extraction for large scale semantic segmentation based domain adaptation.

/pdf/adversarial-learning-based-discriminative-domain-adaptation-k42i09qb.pdf

Adversarial Learning Based Discriminative Domain Adaptation for Geospatial Image Analysis

The geographic object-based image analysis (GEOBIA) framework has gained increasing interest for the last decade. One of its key advantages is the hierarchical representation of an image, where object topological features can be extracted and modeled in the form of structured data. We thus propose to use a structured kernel relying on the concept of bag of subpaths to directly cope with such features. The kernel can be approximated using random Fourier features, allowing it to be applied on a large structure size (the number of objects in the structured data) and large volumes of data (the number of pixels or regions for training). With the so-called scalable bag of subpaths kernel (SBoSK), we also introduce a novel multi-source classification approach performing machine learning directly on a hierarchical image representation built from two images at different resolutions under the GEOBIA framework. Experiments run on an urban classification task show that the proposed approach run on a single image improves the classification overall accuracy in comparison with conventional approaches from 2% to 5% depending on the training set size and that fusing two images allows a supplementary 4% accuracy gain. Additional evaluations on public available large-scale datasets illustrate further the potential of SBoSK, with overall accuracy rates improvement ranging from 1% to 11% depending on the considered setup.

https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01672848/document

Scalable Bag of Subpaths Kernel for Learning on Hierarchical Image Representations and Multi-Source Remote Sensing Data Classification

Tree kernels have demonstrated their ability to deal with hierarchical data, as the intrinsic tree structure often plays a discriminative role. While such kernels have been successfully applied to various domains such as nature language processing and bioinformatics, they mostly concentrate on ordered trees and whose nodes are described by symbolic data. Meanwhile, hierarchical representations have gained increasing interest to describe image content. This is particularly true in remote sensing, where such representations allow for revealing different objects of interest at various scales through a tree structure. However, the induced trees are unordered and the nodes are equipped with numerical features. In this paper, we propose a new structured kernel for hierarchical image representations which is built on the concept of subpath kernel. Experimental results on both artificial and remote sensing datasets show that the proposed kernel manages to deal with the hierarchical nature of the data, leading to better classification rates.

https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01168099/document

A subpath kernel for learning hierarchical image representations

Nowadays, hyperspectral image classification widely copes with spatial information to improve accuracy. One of the most popular way to integrate such information is to extract hierarchical features from a multiscale segmentation. In the classification context, the extracted features are commonly concatenated into a long vector (also called stacked vector), on which is applied a conventional vector-based machine learning technique (e.g. SVM with Gaussian kernel). In this paper, we rather propose to use a sequence structured kernel: the spectrum kernel. We show that the conventional stacked vector-based kernel is actually a special case of this kernel. Experiments conducted on various publicly available hyperspectral datasets illustrate the improvement of the proposed kernel w.r.t. conventional ones using the same hierarchical spatial features.

https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01320012/document

Combining multiscale features for classification of hyperspectral images: A sequence-based kernel approach

Hierarchical image representations have been widely used in the image classification context. Such representations are capable of modeling the content of an image through a tree structure, where objects-of-interest (represented by the nodes of the tree) can be revealed at various scales, and where the topological relationship between objects (e.g. A is part of B, or B consists of A) can be easily captured thanks to the edges of the tree. However, for fully benefiting from this key information, dedicated machine learning methods that can directly learn on hierarchical representations and handle the induced structured data need to be developed. In this thesis, we investigate kernel-based strategies that make possible taking input data in tree-structured and capturing the topological patterns inside each structure through designing structured kernels. We apply the designed kernel to remote sensing image classification tasks, allowing the discovery of complex cross-scale patterns in hierarchical image representations. 

We develop a structured kernel dedicated to unordered tree and path (sequence of nodes) structures equipped with numerical features, called Bag of Subpaths Kernel (BoSK). BoSK is an instance of a convolution kernel relying on subpath substructures, more precisely a bag of all paths and single nodes. It is formed by summing up kernels computed on all pairs of subpaths of the same length between two bags. The direct computation of BoSK can be done through an iterative scheme, yielding a quadratic complexity w.r.t. both structure size (number of nodes) and amount of data (training size). However, such complexity prevents BoSK to be used on real world large-scale problems, where the tree can have more than hundreds of nodes and the available training data can consist in more than ten thousands samples. Therefore, we propose a fast version of the algorithm, called Scalable BoSK (SBoSK for short), using Random Fourier Features to map the structured data in a randomized finite-dimensional Euclidean space, where inner product of the transformed feature vector approximates BoSK. It brings down the complexity from quadratic to linear w.r.t. structure size and amount of data, making the kernel compliant with the large-scale machine learning context. 
Thanks to (S)BoSK, we can learn from cross-scale patterns in hierarchical image representations. (S)BoSK operates on paths, thus allowing modeling the context of a pixel (leaf of the hierarchical representation) through its ancestor regions at multiple scales. Such a model is used within pixel-based image classification. (S)BoSK also deals with trees, making the kernel able to capture the composition of an object (top of the hierarchical representation) and the topological relationships among its subparts. This strategy allows tile/sub-image classification. Further relying on (S)BoSK, we introduce a novel multi-source classification approach that performs classification directly from a hierarchical image representation built from two images of the same scene taken at different resolutions, possibly with different modalities. Evaluations on several publicly available datasets illustrate the superiority of (S)BoSK compared to state-of-the-art remote sensing classification methods in terms of classification accuracy, and experiments on a urban classification task show the effectiveness of the proposed multi-source classification approach.

https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-01671529/document

Kernel based learning on hierarchical image representations : applications to remote sensing data classification

A Subpath Kernel for Learning Hierarchical Image Representations

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