Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) has been considered as a promising technology for the production of large metallic structures with high deposition rates and low cost. Stainless steels are widely applied due to good mechanical properties and excellent corrosion resistance. This paper reviews the current status of stainless steel WAAM, covering the microstructure, mechanical properties, and defects related to different stainless steels and process parameters. Residual stress and distortion of the WAAM manufactured components are discussed. Specific WAAM techniques, material compositions, process parameters, shielding gas composition, post heat treatments, microstructure, and defects can significantly influence the mechanical properties of WAAM stainless steels. To achieve high quality WAAM stainless steel parts, there is still a strong need to further study the underlying physical metallurgy mechanisms of the WAAM process and post heat treatments to optimize the WAAM and heat treatment parameters and thus control the microstructure. WAAM samples often show considerable anisotropy both in microstructure and mechanical properties. The new in-situ rolling + WAAM process is very effective in reducing the anisotropy, which also can reduce the residual stress and distortion. For future industrial applications, fatigue properties, and corrosion behaviors of WAAMed stainless steels need to be deeply studied in the future. Additionally, further efforts should be made to improve the WAAM process to achieve faster deposition rates and better-quality control.

https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/10/5/1563/pdf

Wire arc additive manufacturing of stainless steels: A review

Tremendous growth has been witnessed in the field of additive manufacturing (AM) technology over the last few decades. It offers a plethora of applications and is already being utilized in almost every sphere of life. Owing to inherent differences between each AM technique, newer fields of research consistently emerge and demand attention. Also, the innovative applications of AM open up newer challenges and thus avenues for focused attention. One such avenue is AM materials. Raw material plays an important role in determining the properties of fabricated part. The type and form of raw material largely depend on the type of AM fabricators. There is a restriction on material compatibility with most of the established AM techniques. This review aims to provide an overview of various aspects of AM materials highlighting the progress made especially over the past two decades. 

/pdf/a-review-of-various-materials-for-additive-manufacturing-3gz3885y.pdf

A review of various materials for additive manufacturing: recent trends and processing issues

Additive manufacturing is a process of transforming 3D CAD models into a finished part by adding layers of material. The technology is being used for more than three decades to make prototypes using polymer powders. Over the years, the technique has evolved, which currently allows the industries to manufacture functional parts out of different metals that have high complexity and limited lot size. Tungsten carbide (WC-Co) is a refractory metal with a very high melting point of around 2900 °C and is difficult to manufacture by conventional methods. Hence, tungsten carbide hardmetal parts are made by powder metallurgy technique, wherein tungsten carbide and binder metal powders (cobalt, nickel, iron or alloys of these metals) are pressed into the desired shape and sintered. However, due to the recent advancements, researchers have proven that complex tungsten carbide parts can be made by additive techniques. Hence, the article aims to summarize the three major techniques, Selective Laser Melting (SLM), Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), and Binder Jet 3D printing (BJ3DP) used in the manufacturing of tungsten carbide hardmetal parts. The process variables, metallurgical and mechanical characteristics, and challenges in manufacturing are presented which would serve as a knowledge pool for prospective researchers.

Additive Manufacturing of Tungsten Carbide Hardmetal Parts by Selective Laser Melting (SLM), Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) and Binder Jet 3D Printing (BJ3DP) Techniques

Cemented carbides, known as the "teeth of industry", are widely used in aerospace, resource mining, equipment manufacturing, rail transit, and electronic information industries, among others. Additive manufacturing (AM) technology provides a new route for preparing geometrically complex cemented carbide parts. In this paper, we review the progress in respect of AM technology in WC-Co cemented carbides. We first introduce the two technology routes for AM of WC-Co cemented carbides: powder bed fusion (PBF), based on hot forming technology (e.g., selective laser sintering, selective laser melting, and selective electron beam melting), and forming–debinding–sintering (FDS), based on green-body cold forming along with debinding and sintering processes (e.g., binder jetting additive manufacturing–debinding–sintering, fused deposition modeling–debinding–sintering, and 3D gel printing–debinding–sintering). Furthermore, we analyze the key influencing factors in respect of the densification, metallurgical defects, microstructure evolution, and mechanical properties of WC-Co cemented carbides prepared using AM. We conclude that the critical problem in preparing WC-Co cemented carbides via PBF is the prevention of cracking and reducing porosity to improve the relative density, as well as avoiding the η phase. However, although FDS has shortcomings, including complex feedstock preparation (binder) and a long technological process, this technology shows promise for preparing high-performance WC-Co cemented carbides, because it sufficiently combines the advantages of AM and powder metallurgy. Finally, we identify and delineate the current research gaps and prospects of AM in respect of WC-Co cemented carbides from four aspects. 

Additive manufacturing of WC-Co cemented carbides: process, microstructure, and mechanical properties

WC-Co composites comparable to titanium in thermal expansion coefficient can be used as wear-resistant coatings, extending the applications of titanium alloys. This study aims to investigate the effect of laser power on the quality of composite coatings on the Ti-6Al-4 V substrate, and to study the phase constituents comprehensively, microstructural evolution, microhardness, and wear behavior of composite coatings. The experimental results show that there is a good metallurgical bonding between the WC-Co composite coatings with high densification and the substrate. Furthermore, a considerably high microhardness up to 1536 HV0.5, and a wear rate of 1.5 g/h were achieved owing to the synergistic effect of excellent metallurgical bonding and fine microstructures of the composite coating under laser power of 2000 W. Based on the experimental results, the process-structure-properties relationship of laser cladded WC-Co composite was established. It is expected to be applied to improve the wear resistance of petroleum titanium alloys in deep and ultra-deep wells. 

On enhancing wear resistance of titanium alloys by laser cladded WC-Co composite coatings

WC-Co hardmetals are widely used in wear-resistant parts, cutting tools, molds, and mining parts, owing to the combination of high hardness and high toughness. WC-Co hardmetal parts are usually produced by casting and powder metallurgy, which cannot manufacture parts with complex geometries and often require post-processing such as machining. Additive manufacturing (AM) technologies are able to fabricate parts with high geometric complexity and reduce post-processing. Therefore, additive manufacturing of WC-Co hardmetals has been widely studied in recent years. In this article, the current status of additive manufacturing of WC-Co hardmetals is reviewed. The advantages and disadvantages of different AM processes used for producing WC-Co parts, including selective laser melting (SLM), selective electron beam melting (SEBM), binder jet additive manufacturing (BJAM), 3D gel-printing (3DGP), and fused filament fabrication (FFF) are discussed. The studies on microstructures, defects, and mechanical properties of WC-Co parts manufactured by different AM processes are reviewed. Finally, the remaining challenges in additive manufacturing of WC-Co hardmetals are pointed out and suggestions on future research are discussed.

/pdf/additive-manufacturing-of-wc-co-hardmetals-a-review-20z4ocs4xw.pdf

Additive manufacturing of WC-Co hardmetals: a review

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Additive manufacturing of WC-Co hardmetals: a review