The energy transition challenges faced by modern civilization have significantly enhanced the demand for critical metals like lithium resulting in improved methods to explore, extract, and utilize these metals. In this comprehensive review, we discuss the different types of lithium resources, factors, and mechanisms controlling lithium enrichment in various geological settings including terrestrial and marine environments. Diverse exploration strategies including geological, geophysical, mineralogical, geochemical, and remote sensing techniques including drone-based techniques for lithium exploration studies in different terranes are summarized. An overview of the mining techniques, including beneficiation and extraction, and their principles, mechanisms, operations, and comparison of the various approaches and compatibility with different types of lithium deposits for obtaining maximum yield are evaluated. Lithium isotopic studies are useful in understanding geological processes such as past weathering events and riverine input into the oceans, as well as in understanding the source of lithium in diverse types of deposits. We also highlight the recent developments in other areas such as recycling, environmental impact, and state-of-the-art analytical techniques for determining lithium in different lithium ore deposits and other geological materials. Our overview provides the latest developments and insights in the various sectors related to lithium and prompt further developments to meet the growing demand for this valuable metal as the world transforms to clean energy. 

Lithium: A review of applications, occurrence, exploration, extraction, rercycling, analysis, and environmental impact

Metasomatic effect of Li-bearing aplite-pegmatites on psammitic and pelitic metasediments: Geochemical constraints on critical raw material exploration at the Fregeneda–Almendra Pegmatite Field (Spain and Portugal)

The Jiajika pegmatite-type lithium deposit emplaced in Upper Triassic turbidites is located in the southeastern Songpan-Ganze terrane of the eastern Tibetan Plateau and is the largest hard-rock lithium deposit in China. The Jiajika Scientific Drilling Project (JSD) consists of the JSD-1 borehole, which is 3211 m deep, and two 1000 m boreholes, JSD-2 and JSD-3. The JSD-1 borehole is composed of the upper pelitic metasediment unit (0-900m) and the lower are calc-silicate unit (900-3211 m). Pelitic metasediments at the depth of 0-400 m experienced Barrovian-Buchan metamorphism, while metasediments at the depth of 0-900 m were associated with domal deformation (D2). The calc-silicate unit below 900 m only experienced earlier orogenic deformation (D1). The mineralization of Li-Be and Nb-Ta occurs at a depth of 0-1200 m and 0-1800 m, respectively, while the Rb enrichment occurs throughout the whole borehole. Analyses of K-Fe-Ba-B-Li-Rb isotopes suggest that the Jiajika lithium deposit resulted from high-degree fractionation of the parent granitic magma and strong fluid immiscibility. The pegmatites may have crystallized from volatile-rich melts during two-stage magmatic-hydrothermal events at 205-210 Ma and 192-193 Ma. The JSD-1, JSD-2 and JSD-3 indicate that S-type granite related to the Jiajika lithium deposit was emplaced as multi-layer domal sheets, rather than as a deeply rooted pluton. The domal granitic sheets are surrounded by pegmatites and meta-sedimentary rocks. Therefore, we propose a “domal granitic sheet” model to interpret the geologic scenario from granite sheet to Li-rich pegmatite in the Jiajika ore field. The Upper Triassic turbidites in the Songpan-Ganze terrane underwent significant orogenic decollement at ∼230 Ma, followed by deep anatexis, basement doming, magma rising and emplacement of granitic sheets. Finally, the rare-metal-rich pegmatites intruded under domal decompression condition, forming a multi-layer architecture intercrossed by the granitic sheets and the meta-sediments. 

Geologic Scenario from Granitic sheet to Li-rich Pegmatite Uncovered by Scientific Drilling at the Jiajika Lithium Deposit in Eastern Tibetan Plateau

Geology and mineralization of the Songpan-Ganze-West Kunlun pegmatite-type rare-metal metallogenic belt in China: An overview and synthesis

Geochronological and geochemical constraints on magmatic evolution and mineralization of the northeast Ke’eryin pluton and the newly discovered Jiada pegmatite-type lithium deposit, Western China

Lithium isotope behavior during magmatic differentiation and fluid exsolution in the Jiajika granite–pegmatite deposit, Sichuan, China

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Lithium isotope behavior during magmatic differentiation and fluid exsolution in the Jiajika granite–pegmatite deposit, Sichuan, China