Phytoremediation uses plants and associated microbes to remove pollutants from the environment and is considered a promising bioremediation method. Compared with well-described single contaminant treatments, the number of studies reporting phytoremediation of soil mixed pollutants has increased recently. Endophytes, including bacteria and fungi, exhibit beneficial traits for the promotion of plant growth, stress alleviation, and biodegradation. Moreover, endophytes either directly or indirectly assist host plants to survive high concentrations of organic and inorganic pollutants in the soil. Endophytic microorganisms can also regulate the plant metabolism in different ways, exhibiting a variety of physiological characteristics. This review summarizes the taxa and physiological properties of endophytic microorganisms that may participate in the detoxification of contaminant mixtures. Furthermore, potential biomolecules that may enhance endophyte mediated phytoremediation are discussed. The practical applications of pollutant-degrading endophytes and current strategies for applying this valuable bio-resource to soil phytoremediation are summarized.

Endophyte-assisted phytoremediation: mechanisms and current application strategies for soil mixed pollutants.

Fungal endophytes are isolated from almost every host plant studied so far. The relationship between endophytes and host plants involves both mutualism and antagonism. Plants have many mechanisms to limit the growth of endophytes which include producing a variety of toxic metabolites such as terpenoides. But over a long period of co-evolution, endophytes have gradually formed a variety of tolerant mechanisms towards host metabolites by producing exo enzymes and mycotoxins. These enzymes include pectinase, cellulase, lipoidase, proteinase, phenol oxidase and lignin catabolic enzymes. When host plants die the fungi utilize the carbon source, plant residues such as glucose, oligosaccharides, cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, keratin, pectin, lipids and proteins and decomposes effectively. These enzymes may also degrade macromolecule compounds into small molecules or convert more toxic substances into less toxic in order to increase their adaptability. The use of fungi to clean up environmental pollutants has gained momentum in the past few years. However, most studies have focussed on white rot fungi and use of endophytic fungi might be a novel and important source for degradation of toxic pollutants including hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyl’s (PCBs), polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), radionuclides, and metals. Phytoremediation is another important bioremediation aspects of endophytic fungi in soils contaminated with hydrocarbons and heavy metals. Depolymerisations is one of the most efficient methods of plastic waste management by endophytic fungal enzymatic action. Complex polymers disintegrate into short chains of oligomers, dimers and monomers which can act as a source of carbon and energy. The enzymes produced by the microbes vary with the species even between strains of the same species. Enzymes are very specific in their action on substrates so that different enzymes help in the degradation of various types of enzymes.

Endophytic Fungi Bioremediation

Fungal endophytes live symbiotically within healthy plant tissues and found to be associated with all host plants studied till date in all natural ecosystems with varied geographical areas. These microbes benefit the plants by conferring resistance to several biotic and abiotic stresses and also influence the soil rhizosphere environment. The endophytic fungi may affect plant phenotypic and functional traits by promoting nutrient/mineral uptake and alters defensive pathways. The importance of fungal endophytes to ecosystem functioning via soil processes is also aroused increasing interest during the past decade as host-fungal interaction affects ecology, distribution, and diversity of plants. The present review ascertains the role of fungal endophytes on host ecological fitness during different stress conditions.

Functional roles of fungal endophytes in host fitness during stress conditions

Plants encounter a plethora of conditions in the soil that are either deleterious, neutral, or beneficial to plant growth. Endophyic fungi living in plant organs have a symbiotic relationship with their hosts. In the past, many studies focused on the interactions between plants and endophytic fungi. However, in natural environment, the interactions among plant, endophytic fungi and soil are more comprehensive. Although the main living places for endophytic fungi were host tissues, they closely associated with rhizospheric soil. In this review, the effects of endophytic fungi on soil chemical, microbial and physical environment has been evaluated to provide useful information of improving soil environment by fungal physical function during the mycelia growth and biochemical function in the course of fungal metabolism.

Recent advances on endophytic fungi optimising soil environment

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Recent advances on endophytic fungi optimising soil environment