Tin dioxide (SnO2), the most stable oxide of tin, is a metal oxide semiconductor that finds its use in a number of applications due to its interesting energy band gap that is easily tunable by doping with foreign elements or by nanostructured design such as thin film, nanowire or nanoparticle formation, etc., and its excellent thermal, mechanical and chemical stability. In particular, its earth abundance and non-toxicity make it very attractive for use in a number of technologies for sustainable development such as energy harvesting and storage. This article attempts to review the state of the art of synthesis and properties of SnO2, focusing primarily on its application as a transparent conductive oxide (TCO) in various optoelectronic devices and second in energy harvesting and energy storage devices where it finds its use as an electron transport layer (ETL) and an electrode material, respectively. In doing so, we discuss how tin oxide meets the requirements for the above applications, the challenges associated with these applications, and how its performance can be further improved by adopting various strategies such as doping with foreign metals, functionalization with plasma, etc. The article begins with a review on the various experimental approaches to doping of SnO2 with foreign elements for its enhanced performance as a TCO as well as related computational studies. Herein, we also compare the TCO performance of doped tin oxide as a function of dopants such as fluorine (F), antimony (Sb), tantalum (Ta), tungsten (W), molybdenum (Mo), phosphorus (P), and gallium (Ga). We also discuss the properties of multilayer SnO2/metal/SnO2 structures with respect to TCO performance. Next, we review the status of tin oxide as a TCO and an ETL in devices such as organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs), organic photovoltaics (OPV), and perovskite solar cells (including plasma treatment approaches) followed by its use in building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) applications. Next, we review the impact of SnO2, mainly as an electrode material on energy storage devices starting from the most popular lithium (Li)-ion batteries to Li–sulfur batteries and finally to the rapidly emerging technology of supercapacitors. Finally, we also compare the performance of doped SnO2 with gallium (Ga) doped zinc oxide (ZnO), the main sustainable alternative to SnO2 as a TCO and summarize the impact of SnO2 on circular economies and discuss the main conclusions and future perspectives. It is expected that the review will serve as an authoritative reference for researchers and policy makers interested in finding out how SnO2 can contribute to the circular economy of some of the most desired sustainable and clean energy technologies including the detailed experimental methods of synthesis and strategies for performance enhancement.

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Tin oxide for optoelectronic, photovoltaic and energy storage devices: a review

To evaluate the influence of thickness on structural, electrical, and optical properties of ZnO:Al (AZO) films, a set of polycrystalline AZO samples with different thicknesses were deposited by pulsed laser deposition. X-ray diffraction measurement shows that the crystal quality of AZO films was improved with the increase of film thickness. Film surface morphology reveals that a transition of growth mode from vertical growth to lateral growth exists when the films become thicker. The resistivity decrease of AZO films with increase of film thickness owes to the change of carrier concentration for 80% regardless of film thickness in the visible region. The photoluminescence spectra of AZO films can be fitted well by seven emissions, and the emi...

Effect of thickness on structural, electrical, and optical properties of ZnO: Al films deposited by pulsed laser deposition

Effect of doping concentration on the properties of aluminium doped zinc oxide thin films prepared by spray pyrolysis for transparent electrode applications

Highly stable transparent and conducting gallium-doped zinc oxide thin films for photovoltaic applications

SnO₂ and F doped SnO₂ (FTO) nanoparticles (NPs) have been synthesized by the hydrothermal method with subsequent annealing at 500 °C. The microstructure and photoluminescence (PL) property of SnO₂ and FTO NPs have been investigated, and an assumption model about the luminescence process of FTO NPs has been proposed. All of the SnO₂ and FTO NPs possess polycrystalline tetragonal rutile structures, and the average size in the range of 16.5-20.2 nm decreases with the increasing of F doping content. The doping element F is shown a uniformly distribution by electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) mapping. The oxygen vacancy concentration becomes higher as is verified by Raman and X-ray photoelectron spectra (XPS). There are three kinds of oxygen chemical states in SnO₂ and FTO NPs, in which Oα corresponds to oxygen vacancies. The room temperature PL position is observed to be independent of F doping content. F- may substitute O2- into the SnO₂ lattice by generating F O + and one extra e-, which can combine with V O + or V O + + to generate V O 0 or V O + to ensure charge balance.

https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/10/12/1398/pdf

Mutual Effects of Fluorine Dopant and Oxygen Vacancies on Structural and Luminescence Characteristics of F Doped SnO₂ Nanoparticles.

Influence of annealing on the properties of ZnO:Ga films prepared by radio frequency magnetron sputtering

Preparation and properties of ZnO:Ga films prepared by r.f. magnetron sputtering at low temperature

Structural and photoluminescence characters of SnO2:Sb films deposited by RF magnetron sputtering

UV–violet photoluminescence emitted from SnO2:Sb thin films at different temperature

Interface kinetics and crystal growth mechanism of a new organometallic coordination compound : triallylthiourea mercury bromide

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