Enhancing the efficiency and the reliability of the data center are the technical challenges for maintaining the quality of services for the end-users in the data center operation. The energy consumption models of the data center components are pivotal for ensuring the optimal design of the internal facilities and limiting the energy consumption of the data center. The reliability modeling of the data center is also important since the end-user’s satisfaction depends on the availability of the data center services. In this review, the state-of-the-art and the research gaps of data center energy consumption and reliability modeling are identified, which could be beneficial for future research on data center design, planning, and operation. The energy consumption models of the data center components in major load sections i.e., information technology (IT), internal power conditioning system (IPCS), and cooling load section are systematically reviewed and classified, which reveals the advantages and disadvantages of the models for different applications. Based on this analysis and related findings it is concluded that the availability of the model parameters and variables are more important than the accuracy, and the energy consumption models are often necessary for data center reliability studies. Additionally, the lack of research on the IPCS consumption modeling is identified, while the IPCS power losses could cause reliability issues and should be considered with importance for designing the data center. The absence of a review on data center reliability analysis is identified that leads this paper to review the data center reliability assessment aspects, which is needed for ensuring the adaptation of new technologies and equipment in the data center. The state-of-the-art of the reliability indices, reliability models, and methodologies are systematically reviewed in this paper for the first time, where the methodologies are divided into two groups i.e., analytical and simulation-based approaches. There is a lack of research on the data center cooling section reliability analysis and the data center components’ failure data, which are identified as research gaps. In addition, the dependency of different load sections for reliability analysis of the data center is also included that shows the service reliability of the data center is impacted by the IPCS and the cooling section.

A Review of Data Centers Energy Consumption and Reliability Modeling

Shipboard DC systems, a Critical Overview: Challenges in Primary Distribution, Power Electronics-based Protection, and Power Scalability

In this letter, a monolithically integrated SiC circuit breaker device providing self-triggered blocking operation is presented. The proposed topology is implemented into a common 4H-SiC JFET technology, which offers conventional cell design and chip scaling opportunities. Basic operation and design implications are discussed on the basis of quasi-static electrical measurements of fabricated nJFET, pJFET and circuit breaker devices. The design of experiment including a variation of channel length and channel doping dose reveals a distinct effect on the design targets, especially on on-state resistance, trigger current and blocking voltage. The investigated devices exhibit trigger current density levels of up to 2.8 A/cm2 and self-sustained blocking capability up to 795 V DC-link voltage. On-state resistance at room temperature is determined to 0.93 $\Omega $ cm2 but drastically decreases at elevated temperatures, as is shown in the experiments.

/pdf/a-monolithically-integrated-sic-circuit-breaker-32go7vfcl3.pdf

A Monolithically Integrated SiC Circuit Breaker

The increasing load density of direct current (DC) distribution system leads to an increase in system capacity and short-circuit fault current. However, due to the limited capacity of a single semiconductor device, solid state circuit breaker (SSCB) with one semiconductor device is difficult to apply to high current applications. This paper proposes a 400V/300A intelligent SSCB with 8 parallel normally-on SiC JFETs as the main static switch, a Microprocessor Unit (MCU) as the intelligent controller and a fast-starting isolated DC/DC converter as the protection driver. This article focuses on Current sharing and balancing among the parallel SiC JFETs. The short circuit experiment was performed using the designed SSCB prototype. The experimental results show that the proposed SSCB can realize short-circuit protection in several microseconds and overload protection in several hundred microseconds. In addition, good dynamic and static current sharing effect is achieved in this paper.

A 400V/300A Ultra-Fast Intelligent DC Solid State Circuit Breaker Using Parallel Connected SiC JFETs

This paper presents a comprehensive review on the employment of wide bandgap (WBG) semiconductor power devices in wind energy conversion systems (WECSs). Silicon-carbide- (SiC) and gallium-nitride (GaN)-based power devices are highlighted and studied in this review, focusing on their application in the wind energy system. This is due to their premium characteristics such as the operation at high switching frequency, which can reduce the switching losses, and the capability to operate at high temperatures compared with silicon (Si)-based devices. These advantages promote the replacement of the conventional Si-based devices with the WBG semiconductor devices in the new modular converter topologies due to the persistent demand for a more-efficient power converter topology with lower losses and smaller sizes. The main objective of this paper was to provide a comprehensive overview of the WBG power devices commercially available on the market and employed in the modular converter topologies for renewable energy systems. The paper also provides a comparison between the WBG power technologies and the traditional ones based on the Si devices. The paper starts from the conventional modular power converter topology circuits, and then, it discusses the opportunities for integrating the SiC and WBG devices in the modular power converters to improve and enhance the system’s performance.

A Review on Modular Converter Topologies Based on WBG Semiconductor Devices in Wind Energy Conversion Systems

Solid State Circuit Breakers (SSCB) are a growing applications of Wide-Band-Gap (WBG) semiconductor devices, because of their ability to perform arc-less interruption of high DC currents. However, a necessary exercise before applying any novel switching device to the breaker space is the evaluation of its switching characteristics at the breaker's rated voltage and current. The turn ON and turn OFF losses have been accepted as two key parameters for performance evaluation. Since SSCB's are normally closed in their nominal operational state and are opened in fault conditions, this makes conduction losses the dominant form of thermal stress. However, characterizing the switching performance of an SSCB is also very useful to validate protection functionality, speed and ability to perform within its safe operating area. Towards that end, Double Pulse Testing (DPT) which is a testing apparatus intended for characterizing single semiconductor devices, has been adopted in this paper as a platform for SSCB testing of switching losses and dynamics, off-state voltage blocking and on-state current interruption. Such a platform provides a basis for comparative analysis of different SSCB implementations without having to expend energy by continuously operating at rated power. The DPT platform was used to validate an SSCB package from ATOMPower Inc, and the data obtained from the test was further post-processed in Python. MATLAB/Simulink software has been used for demonstration purposes and experimental results are included in this paper.

Characterization and Performance of 600V 100A Solid-State Circuit Breaker

DC distribution is emerging as a solution for data centers, however the optimal system architectures have not been established in the industry. This paper first reviews the most recent studies, products and activities of DC distribution in data centers. A hybrid AC and DC distribution architecture is introduced by using both 415V AC and 380V DC together to achieve the data center reliability requirements. The hybrid architecture is quantitatively compared with five state-of-the-art AC and DC architectures in terms of efficiencies, reliabilities and cost. The evaluations are based on the most recent AC and DC distribution component data of efficiency, reliability and cost, meanwhile taking into account the entire power distribution path from Medium Voltage (MV) AC input to server 12V DC. The evaluation shows the hybrid architecture uses fewer power conversion components to achieve the same equivalent reliability requirements of data center system, which results in significant reliability and cost benefits in a data center case study.

A hybrid AC and DC distribution architecture in data centers

Inductive power transfer (IPT) technology has been extensively studied for electric vehicles (EV) in the past decades. However, it has not drawn much attention in railway application. Due to the unique requirements of the railway system, most of the EV coupler designs are not directly compatible with wireless charging applications for a train. To fill this technical gap, this paper discusses the design considerations for railway application and introduces a design of a modular 5-kW IPT system for rail locomotives. According to the design constraints, a novel W-I coupler is proposed for the 5-kW IPT system and the system is optimized via ANSYS Maxwell. A prototype of the proposed IPT system is developed at an airgap of 5 inches and 85 kHz operating frequency. The prototype has been validated in a 1.7 kW output power supply with a DC to DC efficiency of 85.6%. The experimental results validate the feasibility of the IPT system design for rail application.

Design Considerations of An Inductive Power Transfer System for Rail Application

This paper proposed a Si IGBT and SiC MOSFET hybrid switch (Si/SiC HyS)-based solid-state circuit breaker (SSCB) for the DC applications. At nominal current, the proposed Si/SiC HyS based SSCB has lower semiconductor device losses compared to the pure Si IGBT based SSCB. Compared to the pure SiC MOSFET solution, the proposed Si/SiC HyS SSCB solution has lower device cost. Moreover, benefit from the high overload capability of Si IGBT, the proposed Si/SiC HyS SSCB has higher upper limit of the current-time response profile. The experimental results show that compared to the pure SiC MOSFET-based SSCB, the proposed Si/SiC HyS-based SSCB has a lower surge voltage at the turn-off transient of semiconductor devices. The lower surge voltage helps to reduce the gate voltage oscillation and avoid the device false turn-on. The overload testing results show that the proposed Si/SiC HyS-based SSCB has higher overload capability than the pure SiC MOSFET-based solution. The proposed Si/SiC HyS-based SSCB can be a cost-effective protection device to improve electrical safety.

Si IGBT and SiC MOSFET Hybrid Switch-Based Solid State Circuit Breaker for DC Applications

The Si IGBT and SiC MOSFET hybrid switch (Si/SiC HyS) is becoming an alternative solution of the pure Si IGBT or pure SiC MOSFET due to the superior performance on low switching loss, low device cost, and high current carrying capability. In the Si/SiC HyS, all the switching losses are produced by the small current rated SiC MOSFET, thus resulting a higher device junction temperature. The unbalanced device junction temperature will limit the maximum output power of the Si/SiC HyS-based converter and also reduce the converter reliability. In order to solve this problem, the conduction time variation-based active thermal control (CTV-ATC) is proposed in this paper. The SiC MOSFET device junction temperature can be regulated actively by adjusting the conduction loss of SiC MOSFET. To validate the effectiveness of the proposed CTV-ATC, experiments were conducted on a Si/SiC HyS-based buck converter prototype. The experimental results show that by using the proposed CTV-ATC, the junction temperature of Si IGBT and SiC MOSFET can be regulated and reach a balanced state. The maximum output power of the Si/SiC HyS-based converter is improved by 5.9%.

Conduction Time Variation-Based Active Thermal Control Method for Si and SiC Hybrid Switch

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