Anthocyanins are important secondary metabolites in plants, and their contents and composition determine plant flower and fruit color. Plant anthocyanins are natural edible pigments that have many nutritional and medicinal uses, such as antioxidant, anticancer and cardiovascular disease prevention functions. This paper reviews the plant anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway and its main structural genes, analyzes the important transcription factors and microRNAs that affect anthocyanin synthesis, summarizes the effects of different environmental factors on anthocyanin synthesis and accumulation, and finally summarizes the effects of six major exogenous hormones on anthocyanin synthesis and metabolism. Moreover, we consider future research directions and development trends related to anthocyanins to provide a reference basis for future generations to further study and use plant anthocyanins. 

Research progress in understanding the biosynthesis and regulation of plant anthocyanins

Anthocyanin is a vital indicator for both fruit nutritional and commercial value. Anthocyanin accumulation is a surprisingly complicated process mediated by multiple networks associated with genetic, developmental, hormonal, and environmental factors. Transcriptional regulation along with epigenetic regulation constitutes the dominant molecular framework for anthocyanin biosynthesis. Here, we focus on current knowledge on regulatory mechanisms of anthocyanin accumulation, with emphasis on the latest progress in transcriptional and epigenetic regulation and the crosstalk between various signaling pathways. We present an emerging picture of how various internal and external stimuli control anthocyanin biosynthesis. Additionally, we discuss the synergistic or antagonistic effect of developmental, hormonal and environmental cues on anthocyanin accumulation in fruit.

/pdf/colorful-hues-insight-into-the-mechanisms-of-anthocyanin-3tw376nt.pdf

Colorful hues: insight into the mechanisms of anthocyanin pigmentation in fruit.

Review: Why Do Some Plants Have Leaves With Red or Purple Undersides?

SmCIP7, a COP1 interactive protein, positively regulates anthocyanin accumulation and fruit size in eggplant.

Over the past decade, progress has been made in the characterization of anthocyanin synthesis in fruits of plants belonging to the tomato clade. The genomic elements underlying the activation of the process were identified, providing the basis for understanding how the pathway works in these species. In this review we explore the genetic mechanisms that have been characterized to date, and detail the various wild relatives of the tomato, which have been crucial for recovering ancestral traits that were probably lost during evolution from green-purple to yellow and red tomatoes. This knowledge should help developing strategies to further enhance the status of the commercial tomato lines on sale, based on both genome editing and breeding techniques. 

In pursuit of purple: anthocyanin biosynthesis in fruits of the tomato clade.

Anthocyanins are important pigments that impart color in plants. In Solanum, different species display various fruit or flower colors due to varying degrees of anthocyanin accumulation. Here we identified two anthocyanin-free mutants from an ethylmethane sulfonate-induced mutant library and naturally occurring mutants in Solanum melongena, with mutations in the 5`splicing site of the second intron of DFR - leading to altered splicing. Further study revealed that alternative splicing of the second intron was closely related to anthocyanin accumulation in 17 accessions from three cultivated species: Solanum melongena, Solanum macrocarpon, and Solanum aethiopicum and their wild related species. Analysis of natural variations of DFR, using an expanded population including 282 accessions belonging to the spiny Solanum group, identified a SNP in the MYB recognition site in the promoter region, which causes differential expression of DFR and affects anthocyanin accumulation in fruits of the detected accessions. Our study suggests that, owing to years of domestication, the natural variation in the DFR promoter region and the alternative splicing of the DFR gene account for altered anthocyanin accumulation during spiny Solanum domestication.

Discovery of a DFR gene that controls anthocyanin accumulation in the spiny Solanum group: roles of a natural promoter variant and alternative splicing.

Botnet is a serious threat for the Internet and it has created great damage to the Internet. How to detect botnet has become an ongoing endeavor research. Series of methods have been discussed in recent research. However, one of the remaining challenges is that the high computational overhead. In this paper, a lightweight hybrid botnet detection method is proposed. Considering the features in the botnet data packets and the characteristic of employing DGA (Domain Generation Algorithm) domain names to connect to the botnet, two sensors are designed and deployed individually and parallelly. Signature detection is used on the gateway sensor to dig out known bot software and deep learning based techniques are used on the DNS (Domain Name Server) server sensor to find DGA domain names. With this method, the computational overhead would be shared by the two sensors and experiments are conducted and the results indicate that the method is effective in detecting botnet

/pdf/a-lightweight-hybrid-detection-method-for-botnet-84nnx2nx0q.pdf

A Lightweight Hybrid Detection Method for Botnet

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Discovery of a DFR gene that controls anthocyanin accumulation in the spiny Solanum group: roles of a natural promoter variant and alternative splicing.

A Lightweight Hybrid Detection Method for Botnet