THE OPTO-MECHANICAL DESIGN PROCESS Introduction Conceptualization Performance Specifications and Design Constraints Preliminary Design Design Analysis and Computer Modeling Error Budgets and Tolerances Experimental Modeling Finalizing the Design Design Reviews Manufacturing the Instrument Evaluating the End Product Documenting the Design References ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES Introduction Parameters of Concern Environmental Testing of Optics References OPTO-MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS Introduction Materials for Refracting Optics Materials for Reflecting Optics Materials for Mechanical Components Adhesives Sealants Special Coatings for Opto-Mechanical Materials Techniques for Manufacturing Opto-Mechanical Parts References MOUNTING INDIVIDUAL LENSES Introduction Considerations of Centered Optics Cost Impacts of Fabrication Tolerances Lens Weight and Center of Gravity Location Mounting Individual Low-Precision Lenses Mountings for Lenses with Curved Rims Mountings Interfacing with Spherical Surfaces Elastomeric Mountings for Lenses Mounting Lenses on Flexures Alignment of the Individual Lens Mounting Plastic Lenses References MOUNTING MULTIPLE LENSES Introduction Multielement Spacing Considerations Examples of Lens Assemblies with No Moving Parts Examples of Lens Assemblies Containing Moving Parts Lathe Assembly Techniques Microscope Objectives Assemblies Using Plastic Parts Liquid Coupling of Lenses Catadioptric Assemblies Alignment of Multi-Lens Assemblies Alignment of Reflecting Telescope Systems References MOUNTING WINDOWS AND FILTERS Introduction Conventional Window Mounts Special Window Mounts Mounts for Shells and Domes Conformal Windows Filter Mounts Windows Subject to a Pressure Differential References DESIGNING AND MOUNTING PRISMS Introduction Geometric Relationships Designs for Typical Prisms Kinematic and Semikinematic Prism Mounting Principles Mounting Prisms by Clamping Mounting Prisms by Bonding Flexure Mounts for Prisms References DESIGN AND MOUNTING SMALL, NONMETALLIC MIRRORS, GRATINGS, AND PELLICLES Introduction General Considerations Semikinematic Mountings for Small Mirrors Mounting Mirrors by Bonding Flexure Mounts for Mirrors Multiple-Mirror Mounts Mountings for Gratings Pellicle Design and Mounting References LIGHTWEIGHT NONMETALLIC MIRROR DESIGN Introduction Material Considerations Core Cell Configurations Cast Ribbed Substrates Slotted-Strut and Fused Monolithic Substrates Frit-Bonded Substrates Low-Temperature Bonded Substrates Machined-Core Substrates Contoured-Back Solid Mirror Configurations Thin Face Sheet Mirror Configurations Scaling Relationships for Lightweight Mirrors References MOUNTING LARGE, HORIZONTAL-AXIS MIRRORS Introduction General Considerations of Gravity Effects V-Type Mounts Multipoint Edge Supports The Ideal Radial Mount Mercury Tube Mounts Strap and Roller-Chain Mounts Push-Pull Mounts Comparison of Dynamic Relaxation and Finite-Element Analysis Techniques References MOUNTING LARGE VERTICAL-AXIS MIRRORS Introduction Ring Mounts Air Bag (Bladder) Mounts Multiple-Point Supports Metrology Mounts References MOUNTING LARGE, VARIABLE-ORIENTATION MIRRORS Introduction Mechanical Flotation Mounts Hydraulic/Pneumatic Mounts Center-Mounted Mirrors Mounts for Double-Arch Mirrors Bipod Mirror Mounts Thin Face Sheet Mirror Mounts Mounts for Large Space-Borne Mirrors References DESIGN AND MOUNTING OF METALLIC MIRRORS Introduction General Considerations of Metal Mirrors Aluminum Mirrors Beryllium Mirrors Mirrors Made from Other Metals Mirrors with Foam and Metal Matrix Cores Plating of Metal Mirrors Single-Point Diamond Turning of Metal Mirrors Conventional Mountings for Metal Mirrors Integral Mountings for Metal Mirrors Flexure Mountings for Larger Metal Mirrors Interfacing Multiple SPDT Components to Facilitate Assembly and Alignment References OPTICAL INSTRUMENT STRUCTURAL DESIGN Introduction Rigid Housing Configurations Modular Design Principles and Examples A Structural Design for High Shock Loading Athermalized Structural Designs Geometries for Telescope Tube Structures References ANALYSIS OF THE OPTO-MECHANICAL DESIGN Introduction Failure Predictions for Optics Stress Generation at Opto-Mechanical Interfaces Parametric Comparisons of Annular Interface Types Bending Effects Due to Offset Annular Contacts Effects of Temperature Changes Effects of Temperature Gradients Stresses in Cemented and Bonded Optics Due to Temperature Changes Some Effects of Temperature Changes on Elastomerically Mounted Lenses References APPENDIX A: UNITS AND THEIR CONVERSION APPENDIX B: SUMMARY OF METHODS FOR TESTING OPTICAL COMPONENTS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS UNDER ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS APPENDIX C: HARDNESS OF MATERIALS APPENDIX D: GLOSSARY INDEX

Opto-mechanical systems design

Freeform optics constitutes a new technology that is currently driving substantial changes in illumination design. It liberates designers and engineers from restrictions of optical surface geometry, enabling them to achieve compact, lightweight, and efficient illumination systems with excellent optical performance. Freeform optics is currently used widely for both fundamental research and practical applications. This Review focuses on the design of freeform illumination optics, which is a key factor in advancing the development of illumination engineering. The design methods of freeform illumination optics can be divided into two groups: zero-´etendue algorithms based on ideal source assumption and design algorithms for extended light sources. The zero-´etendue algorithms include ray mapping method, Monge–Ampere equation method, and supporting quadric method. The algorithms for extended sources include illumination optimization, feedback design, and simultaneous multiple surfaces method. The characteristics and limitations of these design methods are illustrated and a summary of these methods with future outlooks is also given.

Design of Freeform Illumination Optics

The direct formulation of a freeform optical surface for producing a prescribed irradiance from a point source is very complicated. Instead of directly determining the freeform optical surfaces, we derive a general equation of a parameterized outgoing wavefront, regardless of the structure of the optical element. A separate process is employed to construct the freeform optics following the solution of the wavefront equation. We iteratively revise the wavefront and accordingly update the freeform optics to improve performance. The new method combines two features: (i) the formula derivation process is simplified, and (ii) it could flexibly generate a variety of freeform optical structures with high accuracy.

Iterative wavefront tailoring to simplify freeform optical design for prescribed irradiance.

We consider the problem of calculating a refractive surface generating a prescribed irradiance distribution in the far field in the case of a point light source. We show that this problem can be formulated as a mass transportation problem with a non-quadratic cost function. A method for calculating the refractive surface is proposed, which is based on reducing the problem of calculating an integrable ray mapping to finding a solution to a linear assignment problem. We discuss the application of the developed method for the design of optical elements with two “working” refractive surfaces. The method was applied to the calculation of refractive optical elements generating uniform irradiance distributions in a square and in a region in the form of the letters “AB” on a zero background. The results of the simulations of the designed optical elements demonstrate high performance of the proposed method.

Optimal mass transportation and linear assignment problems in the design of freeform refractive optical elements generating far-field irradiance distributions.

We propose a method for designing refractive optical elements for collimated beam shaping. In this method, the problem of finding a ray mapping is formulated as a linear assignment problem, which is a discrete version of the corresponding mass transportation problem. A method for reconstructing optical surfaces from a computed discrete ray mapping is proposed. The method is suitable for designing continuous piecewise-smooth optical surfaces. The design of refractive optical elements transforming beams with circular cross-section to variously shaped (rectangular, triangular, and cross-shaped) beams with plane wavefront is discussed. The presented numerical simulation results confirm high efficiency of the designed optical elements.

Designing double freeform surfaces for collimated beam shaping with optimal mass transportation and linear assignment problems

A design method is proposed to generate smooth freeform illumination optics for a point light source based on the L2 optimal transport (LOT) mapping. In this method, the LOT mapping between an assumed circular planar source and a prescribed target is first obtained by solving a polar-type LOT problem. Then, the mapping calculated for the circular source is applied for a point light source. Finally, the freeform optical surface is generated by a geometric construction method to realize the ray mapping. As examples, a series of smooth-surface freeform lenses are designed for a point light source to form uniform and complex illumination patterns on rectangular targets. The ray-tracing results show that all the designs achieve excellent performance with the light utilization efficiency η over 0.87 (Fresnel loss considered) and the relative standard deviation (RSD) of the simulated illumination distribution less than 0.051 simultaneously.

Design of a smooth freeform illumination system for a point light source based on polar-type optimal transport mapping.

A method is presented for the fast design of a smooth freeform lens to tailor a collimated light beam with an arbitrary contour. This method begins by calculating an initial surface based on a simplified ray mapping. Then the surface is fitted by a system of Zernike polynomials, whose weights are treated as the optimization variables for further optimization. In the optimization, the objective function is analytically calculated using a partial differential-equation-based approach. To validate the effectiveness of the proposed method, a freeform lens is designed for a collimated Gaussian beam with a spline contour to form a uniform illumination distribution with another spline contour, which takes only 26 s. A freeform lens is also fabricated and experimented, and its practical performance approaches the design.

Fast design method of smooth freeform lens with an arbitrary aperture for collimated beam shaping.

Design and testing of infrared diffractive telescope imaging optical systems

The utility model relates to a projection optical system, comprising a projection optical system image surface, a refraction projection optical system, a second reflection optical system, and a first reflection optical system. The projection optical system image surface, the refraction projection optical system, and the second reflection optical system are disposed on a same optical path. The first reflection optical system is disposed on an optical path of reflected light which is formed after reflection of the second reflection optical system. The utility model provides the projection optical system which has simple optical paths, small projection distortion, small chromatic aberration, clear imaging, uniform projection luminance, compact structure, and small size.

Projection optical system

Diffractive telescope is an updated imaging technology, it differs from conventional refractive and reflective imaging system, which is based on the principle of diffraction image. It has great potential for developing the larger aperture and lightweight telescope. However, one of the great challenges of design this optical system is that the diffractive optical element focuses on different wavelengths of light at different point in space, thereby distorting the color characteristics of image. In this paper, we designs a long-wavelength infrared diffractive telescope imaging system with flat surface Fresnel lens and cancels the infrared optical system chromatic aberration by another flat surface Fresnel lens, achieving broadband light(from 8μm-12μm) to a common focus with 4.6° field of view. At last, the diffuse spot size and MTF function provide diffractive-limited performance. © 2015 SPIE.

Design of infrared diffractive telescope imaging optical systems

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