The urgent need for new anti-HIV/AIDS drugs is a global concern. In addition to obvious economical and commercial hurdles, HIV/AIDS patients are faced with multifarious difficulties associated with the currently approved anti-HIV drugs. Adverse effects, the emergence of drug resistance and the narrow spectrum of activity have limited the therapeutic usefulness of the various reverse transcriptase and protease inhibitors that are currently available on the market. This has driven many scientists to look for new anti-retrovirals with better efficacy, safety and affordability. As has always been the case in the search for cures, natural sources offer great promise. Several natural products, mostly of plant origin have been shown to possess promising activities that could assist in the prevention and/or amelioration of the disease. Many of these anti-HIV agents have other medicinal values as well, which afford them further prospective as novel leads for the development of new drugs that can deal with both the virus and the various disorders that characterize HIV/AIDS. The aim of this review is to report new discoveries and updates pertaining to anti-HIV natural products. In the review anti-HIV agents have been classified according to their chemical classes rather than their target in the HIV replicative cycle, which is the most frequently encountered approach. Perusal of the literature revealed that most of these promising naturally derived anti-HIV compounds are flavonoids, coumarins, terpenoids, alkaloids, polyphenols, polysaccharides or proteins. It is our strong conviction that the results and experiences with many of the anti-HIV natural products will inspire and motivate even more researchers to look for new leads from plants and other natural sources. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Naturally derived anti-HIV agents.

A novel glucose biosensor based on immobilization of glucose oxidase into multiwall carbon nanotubes–polyelectrolyte-loaded electrospun nanofibrous membrane

In biosensors based on direct electron transfer in redox proteins, efficient electron-transfer pathways between the immobilized redox protein and the electrode surface have to be established so to allow a fast electron transfer and concomitantly avoiding free-diffusing redox species. In this review, prerequisites for the direct electron transfer of redox proteins and immobilization of redox proteins on the electrode surfaces are addressed. Based on the specific nature of different proteins and non-manual immobilization procedures, possible biosensor designs are discussed, namely biosensors based on (1) ferritin; (2) cytochrome c; (3) myoglobin; (4) hemoglobin; (5) horseradish peroxidase; (6) catalase; (7) glucose oxidase; and (8) xanthine oxidase.

Biosensors based on direct electron transfer in redox proteins

Layer-by-layer (LBL) assemblies, which have undergone great progress in the past decades, have been used widely in the construction of electrochemical biosensors. The LBL assemblies provide a strategy to rationally design the properties of immobilized films and enhance the performance of biosensors. The following review focuses on the application of LBL assembly technique on electrochemical enzyme biosensors, immunosensors and DNA sensors.

Electrochemical Biosensors Based on Layer‐by‐Layer Assemblies

The preparation of horseradish peroxidase (HRP)–gold nanoparticles (AuNPs)–silk fibroin (SF) modified glassy carbon electrode (GCE) by one step procedure was reported for the first time. The direct electrochemistry of HRP at the modified electrode was investigated. The enzyme electrode showed a quasi-reversible electrochemical redox behavior with a formal potential of −210 mV (vs. SCE) in 0.1 M phosphate buffer solution at pH 7.1. The response of the biosensor showed a surface-controlled electrochemical process with one electron transfer accompanying with one proton. The cathodic transfer coefficient was 0.42, the electron transfer rate constant was 1.84 s −1 and the surface coverage of HRP was 1.8 × 10 −9  mol cm −2 . The experimental results indicated that AuNPs–SF composite matrix could not only steadily immobilize HRP, but also efficiently retain its bioactivity. The biosensor displayed an excellent and quick electrocatalytic response to the reduction of H 2 O 2 .

A novel hydrogen peroxide biosensor based on horseradish peroxidase immobilized on gold nanoparticles-silk fibroin modified glassy carbon electrode and direct electrochemistry of horseradish peroxidase

Tuning the redox and enzymatic activity of glucose oxidase in layered organic films and its application in glucose biosensors.

Baicalin is an anti-HIV drug purified from the traditional Chinese medicinal plant Scutellaria Baicalensis Georgi. Baicalin has proven to be electroactive at pyrolytic graphite (PG) electrodes. We thus studied its interaction with DNA via the electrochemical approach. We observed that the peak currents corresponding to the baicalin reduction–oxidation (redox) reaction significantly decrease upon the addition of DNA. With complementary ultraviolet/visible (UV/Vis) spectroscopic evidence, we suggest that baicalin binds to DNA through intercalation. This feature has enabled baicalin to discriminate between double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) and single-stranded DNA (ssDNA).

Electrochemical investigations of baicalin and DNA–baicalin interactions

Electron transfer reactivity and the catalytic activity of horseradish peroxidase incorporated in dipalmitoylphosphatidic acid films.

Both hemoglobin and myoglobin embedded in dipalmitoylphosphatidic acid (DPPA) films can give a pair of stable, well‐defined, and quasi‐reversible cyclic voltammetric peaks, located at the potentials characteristic of the heme FeIII/FeII redox couple. The formal potentials of hemoglobin and myoglobin in DPPA films are −169 mV and –205 mV, respectively. The apparent heterogeneous electron‐transfer rate constant and other electrochemical parameters have been calculated. Oxygen and hydrogen peroxide can be catalytically reduced by both proteins in DPPA films. The authors thank the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 30070214) and the Chinese Ministry of Education (Grant No. 01087) for financial support.

Electrochemical Studies of Hemoglobin and Myoglobin Embedded in Dipalmitoylphosphatidic Acid Films

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Tuning the redox and enzymatic activity of glucose oxidase in layered organic films and its application in glucose biosensors.

Electrochemical investigations of baicalin and DNA–baicalin interactions

Electron transfer reactivity and the catalytic activity of horseradish peroxidase incorporated in dipalmitoylphosphatidic acid films.

Electrochemical Studies of Hemoglobin and Myoglobin Embedded in Dipalmitoylphosphatidic Acid Films