Ageing and multisensory integration: A review of the evidence, and a computational perspective.

Allocation of attention across different depth planes is a prerequisite for visual selection in a three-dimensional environment. Previous research showed that participants successfully used stereoscopic depth information to focus their attention. This, however, does not mean that salient information from other depth planes is completely neglected. The present study investigated the question of whether competing visual information is differentially processed when displayed in a single depth plane or across two different depth planes. Moreover, it was of interest whether potential effects were further modulated by the items' relative spatial position (near or far). In three experiments participants performed a variant of the additional singleton paradigm. Targets were defined by stereoscopic depth information and as such appeared either in a near or far depth plane. Distractor stimuli were displayed in the same or in the opposed depth plane. The results consistently showed that visual selection was slower when target and distractor coincided within the same depth plane. There was no general advantage for targets presented in near or far depth planes. However, differential effects of target depth plane and the target-distractor relation were observed. Selection of near targets was more affected by distractors within the same depth plane while far targets were identified more slowly when the amount of information in closer depth planes increased. While attentional resources could not be exclusively centered to a distinct depth plane, the allocation of attention might be organized along an egocentric gradient through space and varies with the organization of the visual surrounding.

/pdf/allocation-of-attention-in-3d-space-is-adaptively-modulated-2ea4og68jq.pdf

Allocation of attention in 3D space is adaptively modulated by relative position of target and distractor stimuli

Different visual and auditory latencies affect cross-modal non-spatial repetition inhibition

Previous research reported ambiguous findings regarding the relationship of visuospatial attention and (stereoscopic) depth information. Some studies indicate that attention can be focused on a distinct depth plane, while other investigations revealed attentional capture from irrelevant items located in other, unattended depth planes. To evaluate whether task relevance of depth information modulates the deployment of attentional resources across depth planes, the additional singleton paradigm was adapted: Singletons defined by depth (i.e., displayed behind or in front of a central depth plane) or color (green against gray) were presented among neutral items and served as targets or (irrelevant) distractors. When participants were instructed to search for a color target, no attentional capture from irrelevant depth distractors was observed. In contrast, it took substantially longer to search for depth targets when an irrelevant distractor was presented simultaneously. Color distractors as well as depth distractors caused attentional capture, independent of the distractors’ relative depth position (i.e., in front of or behind the target). However, slight differences in task performance were obtained depending on whether or not participants fixated within the target depth plane. Thus, the current findings indicate that attentional resources in general are uniformly distributed across different depth planes. Although task relevant depth singletons clearly affect the attentional system, this information might be processed subsequent to other stimulus features.

/pdf/the-influence-of-relevant-and-irrelevant-stereoscopic-depth-1uzsqup1br.pdf

The influence of relevant and irrelevant stereoscopic depth cues: Depth information does not always capture attention.

The sound-induced flash illusion (SiFI) is a robust auditory-dominated multisensory integration phenomenon that is used as a reliable indicator to assess multisensory integration. Previous studies have indicated that the SiFI effect is correlated with perceptual sensitivity. However, to date, there is no consensus regarding how it corresponds to sensitivity with long-term training. The present study adopted the classic SiFI paradigm with feedback training to investigate the effect of a week of long-term training on the SiFI effect. Both the training group and control group completed a pretest and a posttest before and after the perceptual training; however, only the training group was required to complete 7-day behavioral training. The results showed that (1) long-term training could reduce the response of fission and fusion illusions by improving perceptual sensitivity and that (2) there was a “plateau effect” that emerged during the training stage, which tended to stabilize by the fifth day. These findings demonstrated that the SiFI effect could be modified with long-term training by ameliorating perceptual sensitivity, especially in terms of the fission illusion. Therefore, the present study supplements perceptual training in SiFI domains and provides evidence that the SiFI could be used as an assessment intervention to improve the efficiency of multisensory integration.

Long-term training reduces the responses to the sound-induced flash illusion

When attention is oriented to a peripheral cue, the processing of nearby stimuli is facilitated. This brief period of facilitation is followed by a long-lasting inhibitory effect, during which there is a delayed response to stimuli presented at a previously cued location. Although the mechanisms underlying the facilitatory effect of attentional orienting/reorienting in three-dimensional (3-D) space have been documented, there is not yet consensus as to how attention orients/reorients in depth during the later inhibitory phase (i.e., inhibition of return [IOR]). In the present study, by incorporating the Posner exogenous cueing paradigm into a virtual 3-D environment, we aimed to investigate whether an IOR effect occurs when attention orients and reorients at the uncued depth in the same hemispace, and whether the IOR effects are the same or different when attention orients/reorients along different trajectories in 3-D space. Our results showed asymmetrical spatial IOR effects when attention was oriented/reoriented at the uncued depth in the same hemispace. Spatial IOR was depth-specific when targets appeared in the near depth plane, whereas it was not depth-specific when targets appeared in the far depth plane. Apart from these results, we also found that attention oriented/reoriented at the same depth but in a different hemispace experienced a reduction in IOR size, thus indicating that the direction-specific spatial IOR mechanisms when attention orients/reorients along different trajectories are different. Taken together, our results suggest that spatial IOR is not entirely "depth-blind," and that the ecological importance of the 3-D world influences the direction of attentional shifts of spatial IOR in 3-D space.

/pdf/effect-of-different-directions-of-attentional-shift-on-2gkbvgbo8c.pdf

Effect of different directions of attentional shift on inhibition of return in three-dimensional space.

The sound-induced flash illusion (SiFI) is a classical auditory-dominated multisensory integration phenomenon in which the observer misperceives the number of visual flashes due to the simultaneous presentation of a different number of auditory beeps. Although the SiFI has been documented to correlate with perceptual sensitivity, to date there is no consensus as to how it corresponds to sensitivity with aging. The present study was based on the SiFI paradigm (Shams et al., 2000), adding repeated auditory stimuli prior to the appearance of audiovisual stimuli to investigate the effects of repetition suppression (RS) on the SiFI with aging. The repeated auditory stimuli consisted of one or two of the same auditory stimuli presented twice in succession, which were then followed by the audiovisual stimuli. By comparing the illusions in old and young adults, we aimed to explore the influence of aging on the RS of auditory stimuli on the SiFI. The results showed that both age groups showed SiFI effects, however, the RS performance of the two age groups had different effects on the fusion and fission illusions. The illusion effect in old adults was weaker than in young adults. Specifically, RS only affected fission illusions in the old adults but both fission and fusion illusions in young adults. Thus, the present study indicated that the decreased perceptual sensitivity based on auditory RS could weaken the SiFI effect in multisensory integration and that old adults are more susceptible to RS, showing that old adults perceived the SiFI effect weakly under auditory RS.

/pdf/effects-of-repetition-suppression-on-sound-induced-flash-2csbc59q2c.pdf

Effects of Repetition Suppression on Sound Induced Flash Illusion With Aging.

Pairing a single visual stimulus with multiple auditory stimuli will lead to the illusory perception of multiple visual stimuli, which is known as sound-induced flash illusion (SIFI). The present study adopted the classic SIFI paradigm to investigate whether value-associated tasks could affect the SIFI. By adjusting the sequence of reward and nonreward conditions, we also examined the effect of reward history on SIFI. The results showed that the fission illusion was reduced when associated with momentary reward, demonstrating significantly higher accuracy and discriminability than the nonreward condition. However, the fusion illusion was not affected by the momentary reward, and the explanation was that the fusion illusion was not as stable as the fission illusion and disappeared across different trials and conditions. Moreover, the robustness of reward history in the present study was not as strong as previous studies have suggested, indicating that the effect of sound on the perceptual representation of visual stimuli is strong and robust to reward history. These findings demonstrated that the reward could reduce the SIFI and broaden the existing dichotomy of SIFI. New evidence for the operation of value-driven attention mechanisms is also provided, suggesting that the underlying value-driven attention operates across multiple sensory systems.

Reward reduces the fission illusion in the sound-induced flash illusion

Sound-induced flash illusion (SiFI) is typical auditory dominance phenomenon in multisensory illusion. Although a number of studies have explored the SiFI in terms of age-related effects, the reasons for the enhanced SiFI in older adults are still controversial. In the present study, older and younger adults with equal visual discrimination were selected to explore age differences in SiFI effects, and to explore the neural indicators by resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) signals. A correlation analysis was calculated to examine the relationship between regional homogeneity (ReHo) and the SiFI. The results showed that both younger and older adults experienced significant fission and fusion illusions, and fission illusions of older adults were greater than that of younger adults. In addition, our results showed ReHo values of the left middle frontal gyrus (MFG), the right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and right superior frontal gyrus (SFG) were significantly positively correlated with the SiFI in older adults. More importantly, the comparison between older and younger adults showed that ReHo values of the right superior temporal gyrus (STG) decreased in older adults, and this was independent of the SiFI. The results indicated that when there was no difference in unisensory ability, the enhancement of multisensory illusion in older adults may not always be explained by compensation mechanisms.

https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/12/10/1418/pdf?version=1666706515

Compensation Mechanisms May Not Always Account for Enhanced Multisensory Illusion in Older Adults: Evidence from Sound-Induced Flash Illusion

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Effect of different directions of attentional shift on inhibition of return in three-dimensional space.

Effects of Repetition Suppression on Sound Induced Flash Illusion With Aging.

Reward reduces the fission illusion in the sound-induced flash illusion

Compensation Mechanisms May Not Always Account for Enhanced Multisensory Illusion in Older Adults: Evidence from Sound-Induced Flash Illusion