Additive manufacturing (AM) is not necessarily a new process but an advanced method for manufacturing complex three-dimensional (3D) parts. Among the several advantages of AM are the affordable cost, capability of building objects with complex structures for small-batch production, and raw material versatility. There are several sub-categories of AM, among which is fused filament fabrication (FFF), also commonly known as fused deposition modeling (FDM). FFF has been one of the most widely used additive manufacturing techniques due to its cost-efficiency, simplicity, and widespread availability. The FFF process is mainly used to create 3D parts made of thermoplastic polymers, and complex physical phenomena such as melt flow, heat transfer, solidification, crystallization, etc. are involved in the FFF process. Different techniques have been developed and employed to analyze these phenomena, including experimental, analytical, numerical, and finite element analysis (FEA). This study specifically aims to provide a comprehensive review of the developed numerical models and simulation tools used to analyze melt flow behavior, heat transfer, crystallization and solidification kinetics, structural analysis, and the material characterization of polymeric components in the FFF process. The strengths and weaknesses of these numerical models are discussed, simplifications and assumptions are highlighted, and an outlook on future work in the numerical modeling and FE simulation of FFF is provided. 

Application of Numerical Modeling and Finite Element Analysis in Fused Filament Fabrication: A Review

/pdf/physics-problems-in-bio-or-bioinspired-additive-30tnpg1l.pdf

Physics problems in bio or bioinspired additive manufacturing

Abstract Melt extrusion-based additive manufacturing (ME-AM) is a promising technique to fabricate porous scaffolds for tissue engineering applications. However, most synthetic semicrystalline polymers do not possess the intrinsic biological activity required to control cell fate. Grafting of biomolecules on polymeric surfaces of AM scaffolds enhances the bioactivity of a construct; however, there are limited strategies available to control the surface density. Here, we report a strategy to tune the surface density of bioactive groups by blending a low molecular weight poly(ε-caprolactone) 5k (PCL 5k ) containing orthogonally reactive azide groups with an unfunctionalized high molecular weight PCL 75k at different ratios. Stable porous three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds were then fabricated using a high weight percentage (75 wt.%) of the low molecular weight PCL 5k . As a proof-of-concept test, we prepared films of three different mass ratios of low and high molecular weight polymers with a thermopress and reacted with an alkynated fluorescent model compound on the surface, yielding a density of 201–561 pmol/cm 2 . Subsequently, a bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP-2)-derived peptide was grafted onto the films comprising different blend compositions, and the effect of peptide surface density on the osteogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stromal cells (hMSCs) was assessed. After two weeks of culturing in a basic medium, cells expressed higher levels of BMP receptor II (BMPRII) on films with the conjugated peptide. In addition, we found that alkaline phosphatase activity was only significantly enhanced on films containing the highest peptide density (i.e., 561 pmol/cm 2 ), indicating the importance of the surface density. Taken together, these results emphasize that the density of surface peptides on cell differentiation must be considered at the cell-material interface. Moreover, we have presented a viable strategy for ME-AM community that desires to tune the bulk and surface functionality via blending of (modified) polymers. Furthermore, the use of alkyne–azide “click” chemistry enables spatial control over bioconjugation of many tissue-specific moieties, making this approach a versatile strategy for tissue engineering applications. Graphic abstract 

A facile strategy for tuning the density of surface-grafted biomolecules for melt extrusion-based additive manufacturing applications

Abstract. The realization of the additive manufactured components requires the understanding of the variables having an effect on the physical final geometry. One of them is represented by the initial digital information with required tolerance, in particular where the different parts such as planar and curved ones need to be connected together. The other important variable is represented by the extruding conditions in FDM of PLA blend materials. The temperature setting with which to reduce the induced tensions, the volume variation and warpage is determined.

Modeling fused deposition of PLA by analysis of the layers

Numerical model of jet formation during melt electrowriting for fabrication of precise structures

Ideal tissue engineering scaffolds need interconnected pores and high porosity to enable cell survival, migration, proliferation, and differentiation. However, obtaining a high-resolution structure is difficult with traditional one-temperature control fused deposition modeling (FDM). In this study, we propose a dual-temperature control method to improve printability. A numerical model is developed in which the viscosity is a function of temperature and shear rate to study the influence of two different temperature control modes. Quantitative tests are used to assess filament formation and shape fidelity, including one-dimensional filament printing, deposition at corners, fusion, and collapse. By using dual-temperature control, the width of the deposited poly(ε-caprolactone) filament is reduced to 50 μm. The comparative results of both the experimental method and numerical simulation suggest that the dual-temperature control FDM can manufacture spatially arranged constructs and presents a promising application in tissue engineering. 

https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s42242-023-00239-1.pdf

Numerical simulation and printability analysis of fused deposition modeling with dual-temperature control

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Numerical simulation and printability analysis of fused deposition modeling with dual-temperature control