The vast enhancement in the development of the Internet of Vehicles (IoV) is due to the impact of the distributed emerging technology and topology of the industrial IoV. It has created a new paradigm, such as the security-related resource constraints of Industry 5.0. A new revolution and dimension in the IoV popup raise various critical challenges in the existing information preservation, especially in node transactions and communication, transmission, trust and privacy, and security-protection-related problems, which have been analyzed. These aspects pose serious problems for the industry to provide vehicular-related data integrity, availability, information exchange reliability, provenance, and trustworthiness for the overall activities and service delivery prospects against the increasing number of multiple transactions. In addition, there has been a lot of research interest that intersects with blockchain and Internet of Vehicles association. In this regard, the inadequate performance of the Internet of Vehicles and connected nodes and the high resource requirements of the consortium blockchain ledger have not yet been tackled with a complete solution. The introduction of the NuCypher Re-encryption infrastructure, hashing tree and allocation, and blockchain proof-of-work require more computational power as well. This paper contributes in two different folds. First, it proposes a blockchain sawtooth-enabled modular architecture for protected, secure, and trusted execution, service delivery, and acknowledgment with immutable ledger storage and security and peer-to-peer (P2P) network on-chain and off-chain inter-communication for vehicular activities. Secondly, we design and create a smart contract-enabled data structure in order to provide smooth industrial node streamlined transactions and broadcast content. Substantially, we develop and deploy a hyperledger sawtooth-aware customized consensus for multiple proof-of-work investigations. For validation purposes, we simulate the exchange of information and related details between connected devices on the IoV. The simulation results show that the proposed architecture of BIoV reduces the cost of computational power down to 37.21% and the robust node generation and exchange up to 56.33%. Therefore, only 41.93% and 47.31% of the Internet of Vehicles-related resources and network constraints are kept and used, respectively.

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Lightweight-BIoV: Blockchain Distributed Ledger Technology (BDLT) for Internet of Vehicles (IoVs)

As a recent swarm intelligence optimization algorithm, sparrow search algorithm (SSA) is widely adopted in many real-world problems. However, the solutions to the limitations of SSA (such as low accuracy of convergence and tendency of trapping into local optimum) are still not available. To address these issues, we propose an enhanced multi-strategies sparrow search algorithm (EMSSA) based on three strategies specifically addressing the limitations of SSA: 1) in the uniformity-diversification orientation strategy, we propose an adaptive-tent chaos theory to allow more diversity and greater randomness in the initial population; 2) in the hazard-aware transfer strategy, we construct a weighted sine and cosine algorithm based on the growth function to avoid trapping into the state of local optima stagnation; 3) in the dynamic evolutionary strategy, we design the similar perturbation function and introduce the triangle similarity theory to improve the exploration capability. The performance of EMSSA in solving the continuous optimization problems about the 23 benchmark functions, CEC2014, and CEC2017 problems is much improved than that of SSA and other state-of-the-art algorithms. Furthermore, the results of the density peak clustering optimization show that the EMSSA outperforms SSA. 

Enhancing sparrow search algorithm via multi-strategies for continuous optimization problems

Blockchain is among the most promising new technologies due to its unique features, encompassing security, privacy, data integrity, and immutability. Blockchain applications include cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin. Recently, many other applications have begun to deploy blockchain in their systems. These applications include internet of things (IoT) environments. Although deploying blockchain in IoT architecture has yielded numerous advantages, issues and challenges have arisen that require further research. Most IoT devices and platforms have limited storage capacity, low battery power, and limited hardware resources for computation and network communication. Thus, energy efficiency is a critical factor in these devices. On the other hand, blockchain requires extensive resources and high computational capabilities for mining and communication processes. Balancing computation complexity and IoT resources is a fundamental design challenge in implementing blockchain functions, including the hash function, which is crucial to blockchain design for the mining process. In this study, we present a literature review on the common hash functions used in blockchain-based applications, in addition to the lightweight hash functions available in literature. We evaluate and test the common lightweight hash functions (SPONGENT, PHOTON, and QUARK) on FPGA platforms to determine which is most suitable for blockchain-IoT devices. Moreover, we assess lightweight hash functions in terms of area, power, energy, security, and throughput. The results show tradeoffs between these hash functions. SPONGENT performs best on security and throughput. QUARK consumes the least power and energy but has the lowest security parameters. PHOTON utilizes less area and offers a balance between multiple performance metrics (area, energy, and security), rendering it the most suitable lightweight hash function.

An analysis and evaluation of lightweight hash functions for blockchain-based IoT devices

Rapid population growth and urbanisation have accelerated waste generation, and effective waste management has become a major challenge worldwide. With advances in technology and management methods, waste management strategies have begun embracing digitalisation, leveraging the Internet of Things (IoT), big data analytics, cloud/edge computing, machine learning, 5G communication, and blockchain technologies. Amongst them, the blockchain technology has the structural features of achieving information security and integrity without central guarantees. Blockchain also meets the data record/storage needs of waste management and the design of new mechanisms for effective waste management. These benefits make blockchain an attractive technology in the field of waste management, with researchers and practitioners alike investigating its broad applications to support sustainable waste management. However, this emerging technology has not yet been widely accepted by potential users. To further champion the application of blockchain technology, this review paper provides a systematic overview of the various pathways in which the technology has been applied in the waste management industry and further discusses its related challenges and opportunities via considering the promising prospect of combining blockchain technology with IoT, artificial intelligence (AI) and life cycle assessment (LCA). This review also provides insights for interpreting some emerging applications of blockchain in the field of waste management and clarifying the research paths in the context of blockchain, digitalised waste management, and circular economy. 

Blockchain technology applications in waste management: Overview, challenges and opportunities

With the continuous growth in the amount of data generated in the edge-cloud environment, security risks in traditional centralized data management platforms have been concerned. Blockchain technology can be applied to guarantee safety and information transparency in data caching and trading processes. Therefore, a blockchain-based secure cost-aware data caching scheme is proposed to optimize the placement and prevent the tampering of cache data. In this scheme, under the constraints of transmission cost, edge cache size, a quantum particle swarm optimization (QPSO) algorithm is used to solve the data cache placement problem with the greatest content caching gain. A blockchain-based secure decentralized data trading model is proposed to solve the trust problem among the buyers, sellers, and agent nodes and increase incentives for users to trade data. A double auction mechanism is used to maximize social welfare. The experimental results reveal that the proposed data caching and trading scheme can reduce the data transmission cost, improve the cache hit ratio, and maximize social welfare. 

Blockchain-based Data Trading in Edge-cloud Computing Environment

Blockchain is a distributed digital ledger with features such as tamper-proof and privacy protection, which can provide reliable security solutions for the Internet of Things, smart home, and other scenarios. However, most of the devices in these scenarios only have limited computing, storage, bandwidth, and other resources, which makes it difficult to bear the burden of the blockchain consensus process and subsequent storage of the blockchain ledger. Therefore, a lightweight blockchain needs to be designed to suit for resource-constrained device scenarios. In order to achieve lightweight blockchain, an improved PBFT blockchain consensus mechanism based on reward and punishment strategy is proposed in this paper. Moreover, to reduce the storage overhead on the premise of ensuring the recoverability of blockchain, a blockchain storage optimization scheme based on RS erasure code is proposed in this paper. Experimental results show that the strategies proposed in this paper can reduce the delay of the consensus, the communication resources required by the consensus, and the cost of blockchain storage.

Lightweight blockchain consensus mechanism and storage optimization for resource-constrained IoT devices

Existing public blockchain architectures suffer from the difficulty of scaling to support large-scale networks with high TPS, low latency and security. Using the idea of network fragmentation, an improved Raft-based PBFT consensus mechanism is proposed to solve the problem. The network nodes are grouped, and the group adopts the improved Raft mechanism for consensus, and then, the leaders elected in each group form the network committee, and the network committee uses the PBFT mechanism for consensus within the network committee. The results show that R-PBFT is more scalable than PBFT and Raft in a large-scale network environment because it can guarantee high consensus efficiency while having Byzantine fault tolerance; similarly, to improve the fairness between user experience and TPS in blockchain systems, based on the transaction fairness model, a fairness packing algorithm is proposed for storing transactions. It is based on a two-level model, firstly sorting the transactions in descending order based on GasPrice, moreover considering the fairness model for descending order. The experimental confirmed that all the performance of fairness packing is superior to Ethereum packing.

Scalable blockchain storage mechanism based on two-layer structure and improved distributed consensus

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Lightweight blockchain consensus mechanism and storage optimization for resource-constrained IoT devices

Scalable blockchain storage mechanism based on two-layer structure and improved distributed consensus