Chromium speciation, bioavailability, uptake, toxicity and detoxification in soil-plant system: A review.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi-induced mitigation of heavy metal phytotoxicity in metal contaminated soils: A critical review.

Recent advances in bioremediation of heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants: A review.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are soil fungi developing symbiotic association with most terrestrial plants. In such a symbiosis, the fungi provide the host plant with water and nutrients in exchange for carbon. The beneficial effects of AM fungi on the growth of the host plant under stresses such as salinity, drought, heavy metals, etc. have been indicated by research work. However, more has yet to be elucidated on the mechanisms, which may increase the host plant as well as the fungal tolerance under stress. The alleviating effects of the fungi on plant growth and the environment under stress are mostly due to the superb abilities of the fungi in developing physiological and morphological mechanisms. The stress of heavy metals is among the most important stresses adversely affecting plant growth and the environment. The use of biological methods including the use of soil microbes such as AM fungi, plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), and endophytic bacteria has been proved to be among the most effective ones alleviating the adverse effects of stress on plant growth and the environment. The details of bioremediation mechanisms used by the fungi in association with the host plant including the expression of stress genes, the production of glomalin, the fungal phylogeny, and the allocation of heavy metals to different parts of mycorrhizal plant under the stress of heavy metals and some of the most recent advancement in this respect are presented in this chapter.

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and Heavy Metal Tolerance in Plants

Chromium (Cr) is released into the environment through anthropogenic activities and has gained significant attention in the recent decade as environmental pollution. Its contamination has adverse effects on human health and the environment e.g. decreases soil fertility, alters microbial activity, and reduces plant growth. It can occur in different oxidation states, with Cr(VI) being the most toxic form. Cr contamination is a significant environmental and health issue, and phytoremediation offers a promising technology for remediating Cr-contaminated soils. Globally, over 400 hyperaccumulator plant species from 45 families have been identified which have the potential to remediate Cr-contaminated soils through phytoremediation. Phytoremediation can be achieved through various mechanisms, such as phytoextraction, phytovolatilization, phytodegradation, phytostabilization, phytostimulation, and rhizofiltration. Understanding the sources and impacts of Cr contamination, as well as the factors affecting Cr uptake in plants and remediation techniques such as phytoremediation and mechanisms behind it, is crucial for the development of effective phytoremediation strategies. Overall, phytoremediation offers a cost-effective and sustainable solution to the problem of Cr pollution. Further research is needed to identify plant species that are more efficient at accumulating Cr and to optimize phytoremediation methods for specific environmental conditions. With continued research and development, phytoremediation has the potential to become a widely adopted technique for the remediation of heavy metal-contaminated soils. 

pdf/sources-impacts-factors-affecting-cr-uptake-in-plants-and-3wzzo8chfd.pdf

Sources, impacts, factors affecting Cr uptake in plants, and mechanisms behind phytoremediation of Cr-contaminated soils.

Chromium immobilization by extra- and intraradical fungal structures of arbuscular mycorrhizal symbioses

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Chromium immobilization by extra- and intraradical fungal structures of arbuscular mycorrhizal symbioses