Using the 5 Ws and 1 H journalistic approach of Beveridge Mackie (2011), we reviewed the observation intervention research that targeted sport skills or daily movement tasks. Through this review, it became apparent that while there is much research that examines observation of a live or video (what), skilled model (who) for enhanced skill learning (why) in laboratory settings (where), there is a need for not only a wider scope of research, but also a deeper one. Following the review of literature, an applied model for the use of observation is advanced. Through this applied model, we propose that practitioners should first assess the observer's characteristics and the task characteristics for which any observation intervention is being created. The practitioner should then gain an understanding of the context and the desired outcomes of the learner and use this advance information to vary the characteristics of: (1) who is observed; (2) what is observed and what instructional features will accompany the i...

Observation interventions for motor skill learning and performance: an applied model for the use of observation

In this article, we examine the question of what information is processed during observational learning by evaluating a variety of methods, theories, and empirical data. Initially, we review work involving neuroimaging techniques and infant imitation. We then evaluate data from behavioural experiments involving adults, wherein a variety of attempts have been made to isolate the critical or minimal information constraining the acquisition of coordination. This body of research has included comparisons between video and point-light displays, manipulations to the amount and type of information presented in the display, the collection of point-of-gaze data, and manipulations to the task context in terms of outcome goals. We conclude that observational learning is governed by specific features of the model's action (i.e. motions of the end effector) and the task (i.e. outcome constraints) and, in contrast with traditional theoretical modelling, more global aspects of a model (i.e. the relative motions within and between joints) do not appear to be the primary method for constraining action execution.

What is modelled during observational learning

We compared the nature and rate of change in intra-limb coordination in participants who observed a video model (model) with those who practised based on verbal guidance only (control). Sixteen male novices threw a ball towards a target with maximal velocity using a back-handed, reverse baseball pitch. Participants in the model group immediately changed their intra-limb relative motion to more closely resemble the model's relative motion pattern. This new coordination pattern, and concomitant changes in ball speed, was maintained throughout acquisition, without further change. In contrast, the control group showed no change in coordination or ball speed across acquisition. Our findings suggest that demonstrations act as a rate enhancer, conveying an immediate movement solution that is adopted early in acquisition. A model may constrain the learner to perceive and imitate the model's relative motion pattern as suggested by Scully and Newell (1985). The stability of this new movement pattern questi...

Demonstration as a rate enhancer to changes in coordination during early skill acquisition

Purpose: To provide a review of current articles that have used observation interventions to enhance motor skill acquisition or performance of applied tasks, and to situate the research within the ...

Revisiting the Applied Model for the Use of Observation: A Review of Articles Spanning 2011-2018.

The effects of focus of attention instructions on novices learning soccer chip. Brazilian Journal of Biomotricity, v. 2, n. 1, p. 63-77, 2008. Research has suggested that instructions that direct the learner to focus on the movements of their body parts are typically less effective than instructions that focus on the environmental effects of the movement during motor skill acquisition. However, it has been argued that effects of instructional focus depend on the skill level of participants and influential constraints such as whether the learners are predominantly goal oriented. The present study compared the effects of internal and external focus of attention instructions on two groups of novices during acquisition of a soccer chip skill. Twelve adult participants practiced chipping a ball with their non-dominant foot over a barrier towards a circular target. An internal focus instruction group (IFIG) received instructions throughout practice directing them to attend to the coordination of their body parts. An external focus instruction group (EFIG) received instructions referring to the effect of their movements on the environment. Results from both outcome (ball landing position accuracy and consistency) and qualitative movement form data were consistent, showing that participants of both groups improved their performance and were able to retain the skill after a two day break (p < 0.05). However, there were no significant differences between the groups for either outcome score or for the qualitative analysis, suggesting that internal focus instructions and external focus instructions were equally beneficial. These findings suggest that novices with no previous experience of a skill switch interchangeably from one type of attentional focus to another regardless of prior instructions. Future investigation needs to determine sensitive skill related criteria that can be used to identify the stage of learning of participants.

The effects of focus of attention instructions on novices learning soccer chip

The authors examined the observational learning of 24 participants whom they constrained to use the model by removing intrinsic visual knowledge of results (KR). Matched participants assigned to video (VID), point-light (PL), and no-model (CON) groups performed a soccer-chipping task in which vision was occluded at ball contact. Pre- and posttests were interspersed with alternating periods of demonstration and acquisition. The authors assessed delayed retention 2-3 days later. In support of the visual perception perspective, the participants who observed the models showed immediate and enduring changes to more closely imitate the model's relative motion. While observing the demonstration, the PL group participants were more selective in their visual search than were the VID group participants but did not perform more accurately or learn more.

Visual search and coordination changes in response to video and point-light demonstrations without KR.

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Visual search and coordination changes in response to video and point-light demonstrations without KR.